-      THE FUNCTION OF MYTH IN THE "SETTLEMENT" OF THE WEST

Myth  functions  to control history, to shape it in text or image
as  an  ordained sequence of events. Complexity and contradiction
give  way to order, clarity and direction. Myth can be understood
as  an  abstract shelter restricting debate. It can also function
as  ideology,  and  result  in  what has been called the "myth of
the   frontier".   This   myth   guarantees   "progress"  without
encumbering   social  and  environmental debt. It sanctions greed
and  authorizes  westward  expansion as a beneficial undertaking.
It   serves  to  confer  absolute  legitimacy  on  expansion,  as
something  natural  and  unquestionable. The Myth (as exemplified
in  paintings,  movies  and  writings  of the "Old West"), allows
the end to justify the means.

The  commercial  value  of  the  West  was glossed over. Instead,
it  was  portrayed  as  a  fallow  resource  to  be  developed by
high-minded  representatives  of  European  culture.  There is an
implication  that  standards of civilization are transferred from
east  to  west,  along  with their capacity to uplift and benefit
people  in  the  newly  conquered  lands. As Columbus crossed the
oceans,  Daniel  Boone  crossed  the  plains. The founding of the
colonies   (models   of   order  and  religion)  anticipates  the
development  of  Western  frontier  towns,  where law, order  and
Protestant   values  were  brought  to  the  savage  Indians  and
Mexicans.

The  Indians  were  consigned to a romantic doom that left Anglos
untroubled.  They  were  portrayed  more  or  less as children of
nature,  never  as  people  with  a  set of cultural imperatives.
They  were  assigned  racial  stereotypes  by  Whites ignorant of
their  culture.  The  result  was  the  "good  Indian", combining
domesticated  nature with European culture, and the "bad Indian",
combining  unsrestrained  nature  with  the savagery practiced by
the  Anglos  themselves.  (An  example  in another context is the
Anglo's obsession with Mexican machismo). The image of the Indian
was  manipulated by the U.S. government to further the objectives
of  the  West.  Indian-hating  developed  in direct proportion to
the  need  to  claim  the  land, and Indian images followed suit.
Except  for  the  good Indian, contact between Whites and Indians
were  always  shown  in  conflict,  and  violence became condoned
as  the  triumph  of good over evil. The image today of the rich,
patriotic  and  non-threatening  Black  (Clarence Thomas) and the
criminal, drug-ridden ghetto  rappers comes to mind.

Image-makers offered two solutions, both which implied extinction
of  the Indians. One was assimilating them and neutralizing their
"aggressive"  racial  characteristics,  and the other was killing
them.  It  is  patent that there was no mention of the underlying
cause  of  the  problem-  taking lands and livelihood without any
viable  mechanism  to  replace  them.  The image-maker could tell
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*  Much  of  this  material  has been freely taken from "The West
as    America",   Truettner,   Smithsonian   Institution,   1991.
                                                           
a  story,  draw  a conclusion and pronounce judgement, all in the
same  breath.  The  Myth  of  the West became a national ideology
which  has  been  part  of  U.S. domestic and foreign policy ever
since.

An  historical  agenda,  however,  can  be made to reveal itself.
Daniel  Boone  was  in  fact prompted by real estate speculation.
Fur  trappers  had  no  particular love of nature- their interest
was   money.   Furthermore,  they  were  trespassing  on  foreign
territory,  and  began  the  process  of  separating Indians from
their  land by providing them with manufactored goods an exchange
for  the  skins  of  wild animals. They perpetrated the myth that
the  settling  of  the  West was peaceful, when in reality it was
bitterly  contested  every  step  of the way. Slave vs free state
rivalries casued border strife in the Midwest, territory disputes
with  foreign  governments  were  initiated  by the occupation of
the  Southwest, and a prolonged clash with the Indians throughout
decimated  their  way  of  life. Capitalists from the East rushed
the process of expansion, abusing people and nature, contributing
to  an  atmosphere  of  violence  that was the antithesis of what
the myth tries to tell us.

"Settlement"  is  an  euphemism  for  colonialism. Monroe, Quincy
Adams,  and  Calhoun  were  all  ardent  colonialists  through  a
pragmatic  use  of  exploration, diplomacy and military strategy.
The  purpose  was  to  locate  an  outer ring of posts and assert
U.S.   authority  throughout  Indian  and  Mexican  lands.  These
outposts of economic empire were established by the shock troopps
of  U.S.  conquest  in  the  Southwest. The rationale was that it
was an "adventurous enterprise".

In  1821,  the  Austin  family, after an initial refusal, secured
a  land  grant  from  the newly independent Mexican government to
found  a  colony in Texas. Anglos, mostly Southerners, eventually
outnumbered  Mexicans.  They  brought in slaves by the thousands,
despite  Mexico's abolition of slavery. They included adventurers
and  persons  fleeing  from  the  law. Mexico became so concerned
that  it  sent  Mier  y  Teran  to investigate. Anglos refused to
become  Catholics,  give  up  slavery,  obey  the Mexican justice
system  or  pay  customs.  Tension  was so great that Austin went
to  Mexico  City  to  resolve matters, whereupon he was arrested.
The  U.S.North  felt  it  was all right for Texas to secede from,
Mexico,  though it later fought to the death to prevent the South
from  seceding.  By  1835,  Anglos were openly attacking Mexicans
in their own contry, and after fierce fighting the Mexican forces
were  defeated.  For  a  time  antislavery forces prevented Texas
from entering the Union.

In  New  Mexico  and  California  there was a sizeable population
of  Pueblo,  Apache,  Navaho  and  Mexicans.  In fact, there were
so  many  that  Anglos did not outnumber them until well into the
twentieth century.

Mexico  refused  to  acknowledge  the  annexation  of Texas. When
Mexican  troops crossed the Rio Bravo to attack U.S. forces under
Taylor, president Polk declared it was an "act of war" by Mexico.
Scott  landed troops in Veracruz and marched along Cortez's route
to  Mexico  City,  while  Kearny  set  out to conquer California.
The  war  in  California had all the elements of a covert action.
(Gold  had  been  discovered  by  James Dwight Dana in 1841). The
Mexican  authorities  viewed  Fremont  with suspicion and ordered
him to leave. When war with Mexico was imminent, Fremont returned
to  stir up a rebellion against Mexico. Fremont captured northern
California  while  Sloat  and  Stockton  captured  coastal towns.
Southern  California,  in  turn,  rose  up  in  rebellion against
Stockton and drove the U.S. Americans from Los Angeles.

The  myth  keeps  alive  the  illusion  that  no  crime  was ever
committed.  High  schools  in  the U.S. teach that Mexico "ceded"
its  territory.  The  implication  is  that it didn't really need
it,   it  was  too  much  of  a  bother.  A  gift,  really,  that
acknowledged  the  inherent  right  of  empire.  What high school
teaches  that in Resaca de la Palma, there were "Mexican cadavers
in every direction; several with their heads partly or completely
torn off; others without arms or legs, some with their intestines
exposed"?* In Monterrey, an eye witness reports: "I saw a Mexican
woman  bringing  bread  and  water to the wounded of both armies.
When  she  returned with more provisions on her errands of mercy,
I  heard  a  rifle  shot and saw the innocent creature fall down,
dead.  I  have  never seen such destruction of property. Scarcely
a  house  had  escaped  destruction. In one a young Mexican girl,
about 16 years old, invited me in. She told me with her beautiful
eyes  full  of  tears,  that the bombs had killed her father, her
mother  and  her  two  little  brothers, and now she was alone in
the  world.  In the hospital I saw an old woman of seventy, whose
arm  had  been  blown  off  by  a  grenade.  There  was  a child,
completely  naked,  one  of  his legs cut off below the knee. The
place  was  full  of  flies,  that seemed to enjoy the agony!" In
Tacubaya;  "I  saw  amputated members, still trembling with life,
(piled  up)  while  the  storm drains ran with human blood". From
Rio  Bravo  to  Monterrey  "Everywhere  ranches were set on fire,
cattle  slaughtered, pigs and fowl killed, left to rot". In Mier:
"Women  have  been  repeatedly raped, this is a daily ocurrence".
A  letter  from  Camargo:  "Murder,  mutiny  and  plunder  are so
frequent  that  they  don't  excite  much  attention. Nine tenths
of  the  Americans  here  think  that  it's  a meritorious act to
kill  or  rob  a Mexican;  others think it is their duty to God".
From  a  letter  by Santa Anna; "I have received a letter telling
of  the plunder of the churches, of the theft of sacred artifacts
and  profanation  of  images revered by the Mexican people". This
last  was  too  much  for  the  Irish Catholics in the U.S. Army,
who under the name Saint Patrick's Batallion, deserted and joined
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*  All  quotes  on  this page are from "War with Mexico Reviewed"
by Livermore, American Peace Society, 1850.
                                                           
                                                           
the  Mexicans  in  defense  of their beliefs. It is worthwhile to
note  that  while  the U.S. Civil War is considered a tragedy for
both  sides,  the  Mexican  War  is  presented  as a "triumph for
democracy".

The  U.S.  government's  relations  with the Indians precipitated
confrontation  along the thousand-mile front. The Minnesota Sioux
were  tracked  down after a rebellion and 39 leaders were hanged.
Anglos  in  Colorado,  ignoring  peace  gestures by the Cheyenne,
massacred  more  than  200 Indian men, women and children at Sand
Creek.  Kit  Carson rounded up Navahos and marched them 300 miles
to  a  prison  on  the  Pecos River. Grant's idea was a variation
of  Jefferson';  forcibly  "civilize" the Indians by placing them
on  reservations,  instruct  them  in Christianity and in farming
practices.  The  policy  did  not  work.  Conflicts arose between
Apaches  and  Anglos  in  Arizona,  and the Sioux fought invading
prospectors in the Black Hills.
There  was  no  peace  on  the  Southern Plains. In the Red River
Valley,  wars  were  fought between Anglos, Comanches and Kiowas.
The  Sioux  defeated  Crook  and  Custer.  Resistance of a heroic
nature  continued  when  Chief  Joseph  marched  a thousand miles
trying  to  escape  pursuing  White troopers. In 1877 Crazy Horse
and  Chief  Koseph surrendered. In 1881 Sitting Bull, and in 1886
Geronimo, finally surrendered. The Oglalla Sioux, having embraced
the  millineal  Ghost  Dance,  were  needlessly attacked by White
Colonialists  at  Wounded Knee. By then the White buffalo hunters
had  killed  millions  of  buffalo,  the major food source of the
Plains  Indians,  so  these  now  had  to  live  off  the dole on
reservations.  In  an  effort  to assimilate the Indians, Quakers
attacked   tribalism,  petitioning  Congress to end the authority
of  the  chiefs  and  tribes,  arguing  that the Indians were not
Nations  but  individuals.  To this end they established English-
speaking  schools  for  Indian children far from their homelands.
Congress  passed  the Severalty Act allowing Indians detribalized
plots  of  lands; all other lands were to be thrown open to White
homesteading.

Myth  is  used as an ideological weapon for conquest. Whites were
represented  as  innocent  victims,  not  as  aggressors. Indians
were  barbarians  who  staged massacres while Whites courageously
defended  themselves.  Indians and Mexicans were cast as villains
(bandidos)  who  prevented  the  benefits  of  private  property,
civilization,     reason,     culture,    bourgeois    democracy,
Protestantism,  and  the  English  language from being enjoyed by
all.  The  growth  of  the  U.S.  was  expressed  in terms of the
Indians'  and  Mexicans'  decline-  as each new thing progressed,
the native ways were diminished.

One  hundred  and  fifty  years later private property has become
an  international  cartel,  the  environment has become polluted,
democracy  belongs  to  a  rich  few,  Christianity is the domain
of  TV  hucksters and even the sacred English language has ceased
to  be  what  it  was.  Manifest  Destiny has come a full circle.
Instead  of  bringing  enlightenment  to  the heathen U.S. policy
towards  Indians,  Mexicans and Blacks has sown fear and loathing
and  has called  the Myth into question.  U.S. America, to borrow
a  phrase  from  Carlos  Fuentes,  has  developed  "power without
greatness".  The  beautiful  Myth, variously called The New Deal,
The  New  Frontier,  The  Great  Society  or the New World Order,
has  broken  down   before  the massive failures of capitalism to
provide  even  a  minimum  standard of living for all the people.
It  is  clear  to  the  colonized  peoples  that  the Myth, which
appeared so powerful while it was in the ascendancy is ultimately
hollow, and contains the seeds of its own destruction.