THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

 
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      1790Treaty of ReichenbachBetween Frederick William II of Prussia and Holy
      Roman Emperor Leopold II of Austria.
      Treaty of VäräläEnds Russo-Swedish War (1788–1790).
      Treaty of New YorkBetween Henry Knox and the Creek people.

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    UNITED STATES CANADA1790 IMMIGRATION.  History of immigration to the United States
American immigration history can be viewed in four epochs: the colonial period,
the mid-nineteenth century, the turn of the twentieth, and post-1965. Each
period brought distinct national groups, races, and ethnicities to the United
States. During the seventeenth century, approximately 175,000 Englishmen
migrated to Colonial America.[10] Over half of all European immigrants to
Colonial America during the 17th and 18th centuries arrived as indentured
servants.[11] The mid-nineteenth century saw mainly an influx from northern
Europe; the early twentieth-century mainly from Southern and Eastern Europe;
post-1965 mostly from Latin America and Asia.1790 IMMIGRATION. 18th centuryThe first naturalization law in the United States was the
Naturalization Act of 1790, which restricted naturalization to "free white
persons" of "good moral character" who had resided in the country for two years
and had kept their current state of residence for a year. In 1795 this was
increased to five years residence and three years after notice of intent to
apply for citizenship, and again to 14 years residence and five years notice of
intent in 1798
 
    MEXICO
    CENTRAL AMERICA CARIBBEAN
    SOUTH AMERICA
    EUROPE
    RUSSIA
    MIDEAST
    AFRICA
    ASIA
    SOUTH ASIA
    AUSTRALIA .

    1790    HAITI. French colonial society contained three population groups: Europeans (about 32,000 in 179-0) who held political and economic control; the gens de couleur, some 28,000 free blacks (about half of which had mulatto background) who faced second-class status; and the slaves, who numbered about 500,000.1 (Living outside French society were the maroons (escaped ex-slaves who formed their own settlements in the highlands.) At all times, a majority of slaves in the colony were African-born, as the very brutal conditions of slavery prevented the population from experiencing growth through natural increase.2 According to a study, 49.2 % of the slave population of Haiti was originally from the Congos during this period.3 African cultures thus remained strong among slaves until the end of French rule.edit Revolution

    1790    MIRANDA. En 1790 formula a William Pitt en Londres una propuesta según la cual "la América española desea que la Inglaterra le ayude a sacudir la opresión infame en que la España la tiene  constituida"(Bohórquez:230-231). En Francia pelea en la batalla de Valmy. En 1798 pide infructuosamente al presidente estadounidense John Adams "el pequeño auxilio que necesitamos para comenzar, y que se reduce a seis u ocho buques de guerra y a cuatro o cinco mil hombres de tropa" (Miranda: 83). Según lo proyectó, Miranda se ha convertido en un hombre universal,  o -lo que en su proyecto es lo mismo- colombiano. Su  infatigable acción inclina finalmente a Inglaterra a favor de  la Independencia.

    1790    DE SADE.During Sade's time of freedom, beginning in 179-0, he published several of his
     books anonymously. He met Marie-Constance Quesnet, a former actress, and mother  of a six year old son, who had been abandoned by her husband. Constance and Sade  would stay together for the rest of his life. Sade was, by now, extremely obese. He initially ingratiated himself with the new political situation after the  revolution, supported the Republic,5 called himself "Citizen Sade" and managed  to obtain several official positions despite his aristocratic background.Due to the damage done to his estate in Lacoste which was sacked in 178-9 by an angry mob, he moved to Paris. In 179-0 he was elected to the National Convention where he represented the far left. He was a member of the Piques section, a section notorious for its radical views. He wrote several political pamphlets, in which he called for the implementation of direct vote. However there is much to suggest that he suffered abuse from his fellow revolutionaries due to his aristocratic background. Matters were not helped by the desertion of his son, a second lietenant and the aide-de-camp to an important colonel the Marquis de Toulengeon, in May 179-2. De Sade was forced to disavow his son`s desertion in order to save his neck. Later that year his name was entered - whether by error or willful malice - on the list of emigres of the Bouches-du-Rhone department. Appalled by the Reign of Terror in 179-3, he wrote an admiring eulogy for Jean-Paul Marat to secure his position. Then he resigned his posts, was accused of "moderatism" and imprisoned for over a year. He barely escaped the guillotine, probably due to an administrative error. This experience presumably confirmed his life-long detestation of state tyranny and especially of the death penalty. He was released in 179-4, after the overthrow and execution of Maximilien Robespierre had effectively ended the Reign of Terror.In 179-6, now all but destitute, he had to sell his ruined castle in Lacoste.


    1790- A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens (1812 - 1870) Type of work: Historical fiction Setting:  London and Paris during the French Revolution (1789-1799) Principal characters: Dr. Manette, a French physician, wrongfully imprisoned for 18 years Lucie Manette, his daughter Charles Darnay, a former French aristocrat who has repudiated his title and left France to live in England Jarvis Lorry, the able representative of Tellson & Co., a banking house Sydney Carton, a law clerk Madame Defarge, a French peasant and long-time revolutionary Story Overview: (In the year 1775, King George III sat on the throne of England, preoccupied with his rebellious colonies in America. Across a narrow neck of water to the east, Louis XVI reigned in France, not very much bothered by anything except seeing to his own comforts.) On a cold and foggy night in late November, Mr. Jarvis Lorry was headed out of London bound for Paris, via Dover, on a matter of business. In the darkness of the coach, as he and the other passengers waked and drowsed by turns, Lorry was confronted by a gaunt and ghostly apparition, who engaged him in a silent and macabre conversation.The figure haunting him through the night was Dr. Manette, a French physician and the father of Mr. Lorry's young ward. When the doctor had disappeared from his home eighteen years before, his young English wife had diligently and sorrowfully searched for him, until she died two years later, leaving her small daughter Lucie, who was placed in the care of Mr. Lorry. Lorry had brought the child to England, where she was turned over to Lorry's servant, Miss Pross, a wild-looking, wonderful woman who adored her. At Dover, Lorry was joined by Lucie - now a young woman - and Miss Pross. Lorry informed Lucie that her father had been found alive after years as a political prisoner, and that he, Mr. Lorry, was making this trip to Paris in order to identify him. Lucie, it was hoped, could then help "restore him to life." The sudden reality of finally meeting her father was so great that Lucie could only mutter in an awestricken, doubting voice, "I am going to see his Ghost! It will be his Ghost - not him!" In Paris, Mr. Lorry proceeded directly to the wine-shop of Monsieur Defarge, a former attendant to Dr. Manette, who was now looking after him. The company ascended to the attic. Lucie had been prophetic; indeed, Manette seemed but the ghost of a man, bending over his little shoemaker's bench, unaware of anything around him. Still, together with the free and bewildered Manette, the little group journeyed back to England. Lucie already showed a love and understanding for her long-isolated father, and her companions felt sure she would accomplish the miracle of calling him back to his former self. Five years later, Lucie and her father were called as witnesses in an English court, where a Frenchman, Charles Darnay, was on trial for treason. In the courtroom sat another young man, a lawyer's clerk named Sydney Carton. Carton was immediately struck by the resemblance he and Darnay bore to one another, and when a key witness identified the prisoner as the man he had seen gathering information at a dockyard, Carton managed to discredit the witness by calling attention to the fact that in that very courtroom sat another - himself - who could easily be mistaken for the prisoner. The jury was swayed, and Darnay was acquitted.During the trial, both Carton and Darnay became acquainted with the Manettes. From that time on, they often visited the Manette's comfortable little house on Soho Square. Both men enjoyed the company of the good doctor, whose health of mind and body had been restored through Lucie's patient ministrations - and they also came to see Lucie. As suitors, their physical resemblance was never remarked upon because they were so different in attitude and demeanor. While Darnay, who had turned his back on his ancestral name and title, showed his refined upbringing in his confidence and courtliness, Carton seemed to be his own worst enemy. He was only confident of continued failure, and assured himself of it through drink, slovenliness and a morose character. Though Lucie welcomed them both, she was most drawn to Darnay. Being of a sympathetic and loving nature, she listened and wept one day as Carton, in uncharacteristic openness, confessed his love for her. He asked from her nothing in return because he believed even her love would not be enough to redeem him. The conversation ended with Carton's strange statement and promise: It is useless to say it, I know, but...  for you, and for any dear to you, I would do anything; think, now and then, that there is a man who would give his life, to keep a life you love beside you! Lucie and Charles Darnay were eventually married and began their family. They were happy; but always in the background of their lives lurked a cloud, which seemed to draw menacingly closer year by year. Finally, in 1789, the French Revolution exploded into being. Centuries of aristocrat indifference to the plight of the starving peasants, and the years of cruelty and selfishness, had at last brought on a bitter rebellion that turned Paris into a cauldron of chaos. Madame Defarge, the wife of Dr. Manette's former servant, became a leader in the Revolution. Through the long years from girlhood on, Madame Defarge had always kept her knitting in hand, recording with each stitch a death-list of the names of all those whose injustices she witnessed. Now her denunciations came forth as if they had been coiled inside the knitting; out came the hatred, vengeance and lust for blood that only a woman who had seen all her family killed by the aristocracy could feel. When Madame Defarge and her husband and cohorts, armed with knives and axes, stormed the Bastille, they opened a floodgate of mob violence that would inundate the country. Three years of tumult elapsed. At last, both Mr. Lorry and Charles Darnay felt they must go to Paris. Lorry, true and loyal businessman that he was, looked after the affairs of the Paris branch of Tellson & Co., while Darnay visited a family retainer who had written, begging for his help and presence. But upon his arrival, Darnay was immediately taken into custody and imprisoned, along with many aristocrats and political victims. When Lucie and her father discovered what had happened, Dr. Manette was convinced that, as a former prisoner of the Bastille, he alone could rescue his son-in-law. He hurried to Paris with his daughter and grandchild. There he was quickly accepted by the revolutionaries and allowed access to civil authorities who could perhaps help. But Charles, now identified under his true name as heir to the notorious house of Evremond, had become a certain target of Madame Defarge. She would not allow his release. When, after fifteen months in prison, Charles was acquitted of his alleged crimes through the quiet, confident and moving defense of Dr. Manette, the family's rejoicing was short-lived. Four men came to arrest the young husband again that very afternoon, declaring that he had been denounced by three other accusers - the Defarges and one other. It was only at the second trial that the identity of the third accuser was discovered - Dr. Manette himself!  Now at last came the complete story of Manette's imprisonment. It was presented in the form of a letter written by the doctor after he had spent ten years in prison and was fearing for his sanity. He had hidden the letter behind a stone wall in his cell, where Defarge had encountered it the day the Bastille was stormed. The letter gave the names of those responsible for Manette's abduction and imprisonment - two brothers of the House of Evremond, Charles' father and his uncle - and ended with a condemnation of that house and its descendants. Thus, Dr. Manette, in a tragic and ironic turn of events, was named as his son-in-law's third accuser. And Charles, for his ancestor's crimes, was pronounced guilty and sentenced to death by guillotine. Sydney Carton, who had by now come to Paris, appeared singly calm and purposeful in the face of such terrible news. With a disciplined courage quite foreign to himself, he gained entrance to Charles' cell as his final visitor. There he drugged Darnay, rendering him unconscious, exchanged clothes with him, and had him carried from the cell as "Sydney Carton," a friend of the prisoner totally overcome with grief. Carton remained in Darnay's stead. Hours later, as the coach bearing the Manettes, Mr. Lorry and a still unconscious Darnay thundered toward the Channel and refuge in England, Sydney Carton was making his own escape - from his self-imposed prison of constant failure. Riding along at an unhurried pace in the third tumbrel of six bound that day for La Guillotine, Carton's face and demeanor were those of a man who had found his way. And he was unafraid of his destination. "It is a far, far better thing that I do, than I have ever done; it is a far better rest that I go to, than I have ever known," he whispered to himself. He was now about to offer up his life for his friends. Commentary: Dickens conceived the idea for this complicated plot while acting in a play. Every event penned in A Tale of Two Cities draws toward one great climax, set against the backdrop of the greater drama: history. Master of detailed settings and characterizations, Dickens gave himself the challenge of stripping details down to the bone and letting the many intertwining characters be swept along with the action and violence of the times.  Fortunately for the reader, the novelist couldn't resist the temptation of fleshing out his minor characters, who provide some relief in an otherwise grim account of the French Revolution. Dickens takes the least time with Lucie and Darnay, supposing, perhaps, that we would see them clearly enough; Sydney Carton's inner reform is more fully drawn; and Dr. Manette's brief lapses back into insanity are an early study of the psychological effects of extended inhumane treatment. Jarvis Lorry shows the most character development, evolving from a man of strict business and propriety to one of feeling and warmth. The vindictive Madame Defarge, at first glance, seems to be the main villain in the piece; but, on reflection, La Guillotine, a symbol of revenge run amok, seems to vie for the honor.  A Tale of Two Cities is a sad account of man's inhumanity to man, for even though Darnay escapes, the reader is left haunted by the many innocent who did not.


1790    DEUTSCHLAND.das Manuskript seiner ersten größeren Publikation: „Mineralogische Beobachtungen über einige Basalte am Rhein" abgeschlossen) in das Projekt einer gemeinsamen Forschungsreise von Ende März bis Juli 17-90 mündete. Sie führte von Mainz über den Niederrhein nach England und über das in revolutionärer Gärung angetroffene Paris zurück. Während Forster in der Folge sein Schicksal mit dem Fortgang des Revolutionsprozesses verknüpfen sollte, setzte der ebenfalls beeindruckte und fortan für die Ideale der Französischen Revolution und die allgemeinen Menschenrechte eintretende Humboldt seine kameralistische Ausbildung in Handelswissenschaften sowie in Volks- und Weltwirtschaft an der Hamburger Büsch-Akademie fort, die ihm auch zu Geographie und Reiseliteratur vielerlei Vertiefungsmöglichkeiten bot. Blitzkarriere im Staatsdienst und früher Abschied (179-1–1798-)  BearbeitenIm Mai 1791- schlug Humboldt mit einem Anstellungsgesuch beim preußischen Oberberghauptmann von Heinitz den Weg in den Staatsdienst ein, dem zunächst ein Studium an der Bergakademie Freiberg vorangehen sollte. Seinem Betätigungsdrang entgegen kam der praktische Bergmannsdienst, zu dem täglich um 6 Uhr das Einfahren mit den anderen Bergleuten in die Gruben gehörte; nachmittags nahm er an bis zu sechs Studienkollegs teil. Nebenbei befasste er sich mit der Pflanzenwelt untertage (daraus entstand später seine viel beachtete Publikation „Florae Fribergensis Specimen") sowie mit aktuellen chemischen Problemen der Verbrennung. Das für den Regelstudenten in drei Jahren zu absolvierende Pensum nahm er in acht Monaten auf. Am 6. M

1790- Simón Narciso Jesús Rodríguez, El acta de bautismo que tuvo lugar el día lunes 14 de noviembre se le llamó Simón Narciso de Jesús , nació en Caracas,Venezuela, la noche del 28 de octubre de 1769.(Según acta de Bautismo encontrada en la Iglesia de la Parroquia Candelaria, Ciudad Caracas, en el año 1979)*, "párbulo expósito", es decir sin padres conocidos, tal como aparecería en 1793, en el acta de matrimonio, y el historiador chileno, Miguel Luis Amunátegui, lo considera así, pues posiblemente se afincó en el testimonio de Andrés Bello, quien fue vecino de Simón Rodríguez en Caracas.
Criado en casa del sacerdote Alejandro Carreño, toma de él su apellido y es conocido como Simón Carreño Rodríguez. Documentos de la época y otros testimonios hacen pensar que el sacerdote era en efecto padre de Simón Rodríguez y de su hermano José Cayetano Carreño, cuatro años menor que él y quien se desarrollara como notable músico. Sin embargo, es también conocido, según acta de bautismo de José Cayetano Carreño, que también era Expósito. De tal manera que se puede considerar que eran hermanos de crianza. Su madre Rosalía Rodríguez era hija de un propietario de haciendas y ganado, descendiente de canarios. En mayo de 1791 el Cabildo de Caracas le da un puesto como profesor en la "Escuela de Lectura y Escritura para niños", en 1794 presentó un escrito crítico "Reflexiones sobre los defectos que vician la escuela de primeras letras en Caracas y medios de lograr su reforma por un nuevo establecimiento". En esta escuela tiene la oportunidad de ser el tutor del futuro Libertador Simón Bolívar. Fuertemente influenciado por Emilio de Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Simón Rodríguez desarrolla una revolucionaria concepción de lo que debe ser el modelo educativo de las naciones americanas. El mismo Bolívar en carta al general Santander en 1824 decía que su maestro "enseñaba divirtiendo". Este espíritu que intentaba romper con las rígidas costumbres educativas del colonialismo español se reflejaría en toda la obra y el pensamiento de Simón Rodríguez.
Su participación en la conspiración de Gual y España en contra de la corona española en 1797 lo fuerza a dejar el territorio venezolano.
Honores[]
En Cali , Valle del Cauca - Colombia se fundó la Institución Educativa Técnica de Comercio Simón Rodríguez en honor a Simón Rodríguez
Resumen[]
Nació en Caracas - Venezuela , la noche del 28 de octubre de 1769, sus padres fueron Cayetano Carreño y Rosalía Rodríguez, fue Educador, tutor, mentor y político venezolano, criado por Alejandro Carreño en su casa y tomo su apellido y fue conocido como Simón Carreño Rodríguez documentos hacen creer que el sacerdote en efecto era su padre y de su hermano José Galletano Carreño quien era cuatro años menor que él. En 1791 fue profesor en la "Escuela de Lectura y Escritura para Niños.
Samuel Robinson[]
En Kingston, Jamaica, cambia su nombre a Samuel Robinsón, y después de permanecer algunos años en los Estados Unidos, viaja a Francia (1801). En 1804 se encuentra allí con Simón Bolívar, de quien había sido maestro cuando niño 1 . Juntos realizan un largo viaje por gran parte de Europa. Son testigos presenciales de la coronación de Napoleón Bonaparte en Milán, como Rey de Italia y de Roma. Y es testigo del famoso juramento de Bolívar sobre el monte Sacro,2 en donde profetiza que liberaría a toda América de la corona española, y lo registra para la historia.
Entre 1806 y 1823, mientras se libraba gran parte de la Guerra de Independencia en su natal Venezuela, Rodríguez se hospeda en Italia, Alemania, Rusia, Prusia, y Holanda. Luego daría su opinión sobre este periodo de tiempo diciendo:3
Permanecí en Europa por más de 20 años; trabajé en un laboratorio de química industrial […]; concurrí a juntas secretas de carácter socialista […]. Estudié un poco de literatura, aprendí lenguas y regenté una escuela de primeras letras en un pueblecito de Rusia.
Regresa a América en 1823, usando el nombre de Simón Rodríguez nuevamente. En Colombia establece la primera escuela-taller en 1824. Atiende el llamado hecho por Bolívar desde el Perú y es nombrado "Director de la educación Pública, Ciencias, Artes Físicas y Matemáticas" y "Director de Minas, Agricultura y Vías Públicas" de Bolivia.
En 1826, establece una segunda escuela-taller como parte del proyecto para toda Bolivia. Pero el Mariscal Antonio José de Sucre, presidente de Bolivia desde octubre de 1826 no tenía una buena relación con él, por lo que Rodríguez dimitió el mismo año, trabajando el resto de su vida como educador y escritor, viviendo alternadamente entre Perú, Chile y Ecuador. Muy importante es su trabajo titulado Sociedades Americanas, dividido en varias ediciones publicadas en Arequipa (1828), Concepción (1834), Valparaíso (1838), y Lima (1842). El texto insiste en la necesidad de buscar soluciones propias para los problemas de Hispanoamérica, idea que sintetiza su frase:4
La América española es original, originales han de ser sus instituciones y su gobierno, y originales sus medios de fundar uno y otro. O inventamos, o erramos.
Otra obra importante fue El Libertador del Mediodía de América y sus compañeros de Armas (1830), un alegato sobre la lucha social que emprendía Bolívar en esa época.
Epílogo y restos[]
En los años finales de su vida dio clases en varios colegios de Quito y Guayaquil (Ecuador); debido a un incendio que azotó esta ciudad, gran parte de su obra quedó hecha cenizas.
En el año de 1853 emprende su último viaje rumbo a Perú al lado de su hijo José, y Camilo Gómez, un compañero de éste. Gómez lo asiste en su muerte en el año 1854, en el pueblo de Amotape 5 . Sus restos son trasladados setenta años después al panteón de Perú, y luego a su Caracas natal en donde reposan hoy en día en el Panteón Nacional desde 1954.
Arturo Uslar Pietri escribió una biografía novelada sobre Simón Rodríguez, publicada en 1981: La isla de Róbinson.
Obras[]
"Reflexiones sobre los defectos que vician la escuela de primeras letras en Caracas y medios de lograr su reforma por un nuevo establecimiento(1794)" El Libertador del Mediodía de América y sus compañeros de Armas (1830)

(Todos los textos que aparecen a continuación, se han tomado de la obra en dos volúmenes " Simón Rodríguez – Obras Completas", edición hecha por la Universidad "Simón Rodríguez", de Caracas en agosto de 1975 - Editorial Arte) Defensa de Bolívar La Educación Republicana Luces y Virtudes Sociales La Educación Republicana II Consejos de amigo Crítica de las Providencias de Gobierno La Educación Republicana

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    UNITED STATES CANADA
    
    1791Treaty of HolstonSettles disputes between the United States and the Cherokee over the territories south of the Ohio River; proclaimed and amended in 1792Treaty of SistovaEnds the war between Ottoman  Turkey and Austria (1787–1791)

    1791 The Constitution declares that there is freedom of all to worship. Church and State are separate. There is no normative religion. Paradoxically, the  US becomes the most religious nation in the world. Entrepreneurs vie for religion as a product  to be bought and sold. There is a  market place for religion. To avoid religious war, the Constitution must project all religions. The US is the first to divide church and state. France follows the US example. The French revolution arrives at the gates of the Bastille and Notre Dame. Just as France is ushering in the modern age. USA. By December 179-1 a sufficient number of states had ratified ten of the twelve proposals, and the Bill of Rights became part of the Constitution.It is commonly understood that the Bill of Rights was not originally intended to apply to the states, though except where amendments refer specifically to the Federal Government or a branch thereof (as in the first amendment, under which some states in the early years of the nation officially established a religion), there is no such delineation in the text itself. Nevertheless, a general interpretation of inapplicability to the states remained until 186-8, when the Fourteenth Amendment was passed, which stated, in part, that:  "No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges   or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws."The Supreme Court has interpreted this clause to extend most, but not all, parts of the Bill of Rights to the states. Nevertheless, the balance of state and federal power has remained a battle in the Supreme Court.The amendments that became the Bill of Rights were actually the last ten of the twelve amendments proposed in 178-9. The second of the twelve proposed amendments, regarding the compensation of members of Congress, remained unratified until 199-2, when the legislatures of enough states finally approved it and, as a result, it became the Twenty-seventh Amendment despite more than two centuries of pendency. The first of the twelve—still technically pending before the state legislatures for ratification—pertains to the apportionment of the United States House of Representatives after each decennial census. The most recent state whose lawmakers are known to have ratified this proposal is Kentucky in 179-2, during that commonwealth's first month of statehood.  First Amendment: addresses the rights of freedom of religion (prohibiting   Congressional establishment of a religion over another religion through Law   and protecting the right to free exercise of religion), freedom of speech,  freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, and freedom of petition.   Second Amendment: declares "a well regulated militia" as "necessary to the  security of a free State", and as explanation for prohibiting infringement of  "the right of the people to keep and bear arms."  Third Amendment: prohibits the government from using private homes as quarters   for soldiers without the consent of the owners. The only existing case law   regarding this amendment is a lower court decision in the case of Engblom v. Carey. 1  Fourth Amendment: guards against searches, arrests, and seizures of property   without a specific warrant or a "probable cause" to believe a crime has been   committed. Some rights to privacy have been inferred from this amendment and  others by the Supreme Court.  Fifth Amendment: forbids trial for a major crime except after indictment by a  grand jury; prohibits double jeopardy (repeated trials), except in certain   very limited circumstances; forbids punishment without due process of law; and  provides that an accused person may not be compelled to testify against   himself (this is also known as "Taking the Fifth" or "Pleading the Fifth").  This is regarded as the "rights of the accused" amendment. It also prohibits  government from taking private property without "just compensation," the basis  of eminent domain in the United States.   Sixth Amendment: guarantees a speedy public trial for criminal offenses. It   requires trial by a jury, guarantees the right to legal counsel for the   accused, and guarantees that the accused may require witnesses to attend the  trial and testify in the presence of the accused. It also guarantees the   accused a right to know the charges against him. The Sixth Amendment has  several court cases associated with it, including Powell v. Alabama, United  States v. Wong Kim Ark, Gideon v. Wainwright, and Crawford v. Washington. In  196-6, the Supreme Court ruled that the fifth amendment prohibition on forced   self-incrimination and the sixth amendment clause on right to counsel were to   be made known to all persons placed under arrest, and these clauses have become known as the Miranda rights. Seventh Amendment: assures trial by jury in civil cases.   Eighth Amendment: forbids excessive bail or fines, and cruel and unusual  punishment.  Ninth Amendment: declares that the listing of individual rights in the  Constitution and Bill of Rights is not meant to be comprehensive; and that the  other rights not specifically mentioned are retained elsewhere by the people.  Tenth Amendment: provides that powers that the Constitution does not delegate  to the United States and does not prohibit the states from exercising, are  "reserved to the States respectively, or to the people."

1791     History of central banking in the United States The Federal Reserve System is the third try at a central banking system in the United States. The First Bank of the United States (179-1-181-1) and the Second Bank of the United States (181-6-183-6) each had 20-year charters, and both issued currency and made commercial loans. The banks were opposed by many who thought they were engines of corruption that supported the business class over the needs of the common man. President Andrew Jackson vetoed legislation to renew the Second Bank of the United States, starting a period of free banking.

1791 - The Whiskey Rebellion, or Whiskey Insurrection, was a tax protest in the United States beginning in 1791, during the presidency of George Washington. Farmers who used their leftover grain and corn in the form of whiskey as a medium of exchange were forced to pay a new tax. The tax was a part of treasury secretary Alexander Hamilton's program to increase central government power, in particular to fund his policy of assuming the war debt of those states which had failed to pay. The farmers who resisted, many war veterans, contended that they were fighting for the principles of the American Revolution, in particular against taxation without local representation, while the Federal government maintained the taxes were the legal expression of the taxation powers of Congress.

Throughout counties in Western Pennsylvania, protesters used violence and intimidation to prevent federal officials from collecting the tax. Resistance came to a climax in July 1794, when a U.S. marshal arrived in western Pennsylvania to serve writs to distillers who had not paid the excise. The alarm was raised, and more than 500 armed men attacked the fortified home of tax inspector General John Neville. Washington responded by sending peace commissioners to western Pennsylvania to negotiate with the rebels, while at the same time calling on governors to send a militia force to enforce the tax. With 13,000 militia provided by the governors of Virginia, Maryland, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, Washington rode at the head of an army to suppress the insurgency. The rebels all went home before the arrival of the army, and there was no confrontation. About 20 men were arrested, but all were later acquitted or pardoned.

The Whiskey Rebellion demonstrated that the new national government had the willingness and ability to suppress violent resistance to its laws. The whiskey excise remained difficult to collect, however. The events contributed to the formation of political parties in the United States, a process already underway. The whiskey tax was repealed after Thomas Jefferson's Republican Party, which opposed Hamilton's Federalist Party, came to power in 1801.





Whiskey tax


 


 Alexander Hamilton in a 1792 portrait by John Trumbull
A new U.S. federal government began operating in 1789, following the ratification of the United States Constitution. The previous central government under the Articles of Confederation had been unable to levy taxes; it had borrowed money to meet expenses and fund the Revolution, accumulating $54 million in debt. The states had amassed an additional $25 million in debt.[2] Alexander Hamilton, the first Secretary of the Treasury, sought to use this debt to create a financial system that would promote American prosperity and national unity. In his Report on Public Credit, he urged Congress to consolidate the state and national debts into a single debt that would be funded by the federal government. Congress approved these measures in June and July 1790.[3]

A source of government revenue was needed to pay the respectable amount due of the previous bond holders to whom the debt was owed. By December 1790, Hamilton believed import duties, which were the government's primary source of revenue, had been raised as high as was feasible.[4] He therefore promoted passage of an excise tax on domestically produced distilled spirits. This was to be the first tax levied by the national government on a domestic product.[5] Although taxes were politically unpopular, Hamilton believed that the whiskey excise was a luxury tax that would be the least objectionable tax the government could levy.[6] In this, he had the support of some social reformers, who hoped a "sin tax" would raise public awareness about the harmful effects of alcohol.[7] The whiskey excise act, sometimes known as the "Whiskey Act", became law in March 1791.[8] George Washington defined the revenue districts, appointed the revenue supervisors and inspectors, and set their pay in November 1791.[9]

Western grievances


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The whiskey excise was immediately controversial, with many people on the frontier arguing the tax unfairly targeted westerners.[10] Whiskey was a popular drink, and farmers often supplemented their incomes by operating small stills.[11] Farmers living west of the Appalachian Mountains distilled their excess grain into whiskey, which was easier and more profitable to transport over the mountains than the more cumbersome grain. A whiskey tax would make western farmers less competitive with eastern grain producers.[12] Additionally, cash was always in short supply on the frontier, so whiskey often served as a medium of exchange. For poorer people who were paid in whiskey, the excise was essentially an income tax that wealthier easterners did not pay.[13]

The main objection to the whiskey tax was that it was taxation without (local) representation, exactly what they'd just fought the Revolutionary War to stop. Many tax resisters were veterans. In the Western view, they were fighting for freedom, resisting the newly emerging central state. Furthermore, they did not understand why they should pay other people's debts. Some states had repaid their war debt. The Federalists were buying support from indebted states with their policy of assumption.

Small farmers also protested that Hamilton's excise effectively gave unfair tax breaks to large distillers, most of whom were based in the east. There were two methods of paying the whiskey excise: paying a flat fee or paying by the gallon. Large distillers produced whiskey in volume and could afford the flat fee. The more efficient they became, the less tax per gallon they would pay (as low as 6 cents according to Hamilton). Western farmers who owned small stills did not usually operate them year-round at full capacity, so they ended up paying a higher tax per gallon (9 cents), which made them less competitive.[14] Small distillers believed Hamilton deliberately designed the tax to ruin them and promote big business, a view endorsed by some historians.[15] However, historian Thomas Slaughter argued that a "conspiracy of this sort is difficult to document".[16] Whether by design or not, large distillers recognized the advantage the excise gave them, and they supported the tax.[17]

In addition to the whiskey tax, westerners had a number of other grievances with the national government. Chief among these was the perception that the government was not adequately protecting the western frontier: the Northwest Indian War was going badly for the United States, with major losses in 1791. Furthermore, westerners were prohibited by Spain (which then owned Louisiana) from using the Mississippi River for commercial navigation. Until these issues were addressed, westerners felt the government was ignoring their security and economic welfare. Adding the whiskey excise to these existing grievances only increased tensions on the frontier.[18]

Resistance

Many residents of the western frontier petitioned against passage of the whiskey excise. When that failed, some western Pennsylvanians organized extralegal conventions to advocate repeal of the law.[19] Opposition to the tax was particularly prevalent in four southwestern counties: Allegheny, Fayette, Washington, and Westmoreland.[20] A preliminary meeting held on 27 July 1791, at Redstone Old Fort in Fayette County, called for the selection of delegates to a more formal assembly, which convened in Pittsburgh in early September 1791. The Pittsburgh convention was dominated by moderates such as Hugh Henry Brackenridge, who hoped to prevent the outbreak of violence.[21] The convention sent a petition for redress of grievances to the Pennsylvania Assembly and the U.S House of Representatives, both located in Philadelphia.[22] As a result of this and other petitions, the excise law was modified in May 1792. Changes included a 1-cent reduction in the tax that was advocated by William Findley, a congressman from western Pennsylvania, but the new excise law was still unsatisfactory to many westerners.[23]


 


 "Famous Whiskey Insurrection in Pennsylvania", an 1880 illustration of a tarred and feathered tax collector being made to ride the rail
Appeals to nonviolent resistance were unsuccessful. On 11 September 1791, a recently appointed tax collector named Robert Johnson was tarred and feathered by a disguised gang in Washington County.[24] A man sent by officials to serve court warrants to Johnson's attackers was whipped, tarred, and feathered.[25] Because of these and other violent attacks, the tax went uncollected in 1791 and early 1792.[26] The attackers modeled their actions on the protests of the American Revolution. Supporters of the excise argued there was a difference between taxation without representation in colonial America, and a tax laid by the elected representatives of the American people.[27]

Although older accounts of the Whiskey Rebellion portrayed it as being confined to western Pennsylvania, there was opposition to the whiskey tax in the western counties of every other state in Appalachia (Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia).[28] The whiskey tax went uncollected throughout the frontier state of Kentucky, where no one could be convinced to enforce the law or prosecute evaders.[29][30] In 1792, Hamilton advocated military action to suppress violent resistance in western North Carolina, but Attorney General Edmund Randolph argued there was insufficient evidence to legally justify such a reaction.[31]

In August 1792, a second convention was held in Pittsburgh to discuss resistance to the whiskey tax. This meeting was more radical than the first convention; moderates such as Brackenridge and Findley were not in attendance. One moderate who did attend—to his later regret—was Albert Gallatin, a future secretary of the treasury.[32] A militant group known as the Mingo Creek Association dominated the convention and issued radical demands. As some of them had done in the American Revolution, they raised liberty poles, formed committees of correspondence, and took control of the local militia. They created an extralegal court and discouraged lawsuits for debt collection and foreclosures.[33]

Hamilton regarded the second Pittsburgh convention as a serious threat to the operation of the laws of the federal government. In September 1792, he sent Pennsylvania tax official George Clymer to western Pennsylvania to investigate. Clymer's clumsy attempt at traveling in disguise, and his efforts to intimidate local officials, only increased tensions. His somewhat exaggerated report would greatly influence the decisions made by the Washington administration.[34] Washington and Hamilton viewed resistance to federal laws in Pennsylvania as particularly embarrassing, since the national capital was then located in the same state. On his own initiative, Hamilton drafted a presidential proclamation denouncing resistance to the excise laws and submitted it to Attorney General Randolph, who toned down some of the language. Washington signed the proclamation on September 15, 1792. It was published as a broadside and printed in many newspapers.[35]

The federal tax inspector for western Pennsylvania, General John Neville, was determined to enforce the excise law.[36] Neville, a prominent politician and wealthy planter, was also a large-scale distiller. He had initially opposed the whiskey tax, but subsequently changed his mind, a reversal that angered some western Pennsylvanians.[37] In August 1792, Neville rented a room in Pittsburgh for his tax office, but the landlord turned him out after being threatened with violence by the Mingo Creek Association.[38] From this point on, tax collectors were not the only people targeted in Pennsylvania: those who cooperated with federal tax officials also faced harassment. Anonymous notes and newspaper articles signed by "Tom the Tinker" threatened those who complied with the whiskey tax.[39] Those who failed to heed the warnings might have their barns burned or their stills destroyed.[40]

Resistance to the excise tax continued through 1793 in the frontier counties of Appalachia. Opposition remained especially strident in western Pennsylvania.[41] In June, Neville was burned in effigy by a crowd of about 100 people in Washington County.[42] On the night of 22 November 1793, men broke into the home of tax collector Benjamin Wells in Fayette County. Wells was, like Neville, one of the wealthier men in the region.[43] At gunpoint, the intruders forced Wells to surrender his commission.[41] President Washington offered a reward for the arrest of the assailants, to no avail.[44]

Insurrection


 


 In his 1796 book, Congressman William Findley argued that Alexander Hamilton had deliberately provoked the Whiskey Rebellion.
The resistance came to a climax in 1794. In May of that year, federal district attorney William Rawle issued subpoenas for more than 60 distillers in Pennsylvania who had not paid the excise tax.[45] Under the law then in effect, distillers who received these writs would be obligated to travel to Philadelphia to appear in federal court. For farmers on the western frontier, such a journey was expensive, time-consuming, and beyond their means.[46] At the urging of William Findley, Congress modified this law on 5 June 1794, allowing excise trials to be held in local state courts.[47] But by that time, U.S. marshal David Lenox had already been sent to serve the writs summoning delinquent distillers to Philadelphia. Attorney General William Bradford later maintained that the writs were meant to compel compliance with the law, and that the government did not actually intend to hold trials in Philadelphia.[48]

The timing of these events would later prove to be controversial. In his book on the insurrection, Findley—a bitter political foe of Hamilton—maintained that the treasury secretary had deliberately provoked the uprising by issuing the subpoenas just before the law was made less onerous.[49] In 1963, historian Jacob Cooke, an editor of Hamilton's papers, regarded this charge as "preposterous", calling it a "conspiracy thesis" that overstated Hamilton's control of the federal government.[50] In 1986, historian Thomas Slaughter argued that the outbreak of the insurrection at this moment was due to "a string of ironic coincidences", although "the question about motives must always remain".[51] In 2006, William Hogeland argues Hamilton, Bradford, and Rawle intentionally pursued a course of action that would provoke "the kind of violence that would justify federal military suppression".[52] According to Hogeland, Hamilton had been working towards this moment since the Newburgh Crisis in 1783, where he conceived of using military force to crush popular resistance to direct taxation, for the purpose of promoting national unity and enriching the creditor class at the expense of common taxpayers.[53] The historian S. E. Morison believed Hamilton, in general, wished to enforce the excise law "more as a measure of social discipline than as a source of revenue..."[54]

Battle of Bower Hill

Federal Marshal Lenox delivered most of the writs without incident. On 15 July, he was joined on his rounds by General Neville, who had offered to act as his guide in Allegheny County.[55] That evening, warning shots were fired at the men at the Miller farm, about 10 mi (16 km) south of Pittsburgh. Neville returned home, while Lenox retreated to Pittsburgh.[56]

On 16 July, at least 30 Mingo Creek militiamen surrounded Neville's fortified home, Bower Hill.[57] They demanded the surrender of the federal marshal, whom they believed to be inside. Neville responded by firing a gunshot that mortally wounded Oliver Miller, one of the "rebels".[58] The rebels opened fire, but were unable to dislodge Neville. The rebels retreated to nearby Couch's Fort to gather reinforcements.

The next day, 17 July, the rebels returned to Bower Hill. Their force had swelled to nearly 600 men, now commanded by Major James McFarlane, a veteran of the Revolutionary War.[59] Neville had also received reinforcements: 10 U.S. Army soldiers from Pittsburgh under the command of Major Abraham Kirkpatrick, a brother-in-law of Neville's wife.[60] Before the rebel force arrived, Kirkpatrick had Neville leave the house and hide in a nearby ravine. David Lenox and General Neville's son, Presley Neville, also returned to the area, though they could not get into the house and were captured by the rebels.[61]

Following some fruitless negotiations, the women and children were allowed to leave the house, and then both sides began firing. After about an hour, McFarlane called a cease fire; according to some, a white flag had been waved in the house. As McFarlane stepped into the open, a shot rang out from the house, and he fell, mortally wounded. The enraged rebels then set fire to the house, and Kirkpatrick surrendered.[62] The number of casualties at Bower Hill is unclear; McFarlane and one or two other militiamen were killed; one U.S. soldier may have died from wounds received in the fight.[63] The rebels sent the U.S. soldiers away. Kirkpatrick, Lenox, and Presley Neville were kept as prisoners, but they later escaped.[64]

March on Pittsburgh


 


 Portrait of Hugh Henry Brackenridge, a western opponent of the whiskey tax who tried to prevent violent resistance
McFarlane was given a hero's funeral on July 18. His "murder", as the rebels saw it, further radicalized the countryside.[65] Moderates such as Brackenridge were hard-pressed to restrain the populace. Radical leaders such as David Bradford emerged, urging violent resistance. On 26 July, a group headed by Bradford robbed the U.S. mail as it left Pittsburgh, hoping to discover who in that town opposed them. Finding several letters that condemned the rebels, Bradford and his band called for a military assembly to meet at Braddock's Field, about 8 mi (13 km) east of Pittsburgh.[66]

On 1 August, about 7,000 people gathered at Braddock's Field.[67] This would prove to be the largest gathering of protesters.[68] The crowd consisted primarily of poor people who owned no land. Most did not own whiskey stills. The furor over the whiskey excise had unleashed anger about other economic grievances. By this time, the victims of violence were often wealthy property owners who had no connection to the whiskey tax.[69] Some of the most radical protesters wanted to march on Pittsburgh, which they called "Sodom", loot the homes of the wealthy, and then burn the town to the ground.[70] Others wanted to attack Fort Fayette. There was praise for the French Revolution, and of bringing the guillotine to America. David Bradford, it was said, was comparing himself to Robespierre, a leader of the French Reign of Terror.[71]

At Braddock's Field, there was talk of declaring independence from the United States, and of joining with Spain or Great Britain. Radicals flew a specially designed flag that proclaimed their independence. The flag had six stripes, one for each county represented at the gathering: five Pennsylvania counties (Allegheny, Bedford, Fayette, Washington, and Westmoreland) and one Virginia county (Ohio County).[72]

Pittsburgh citizens helped defuse the threat by banishing three men whose intercepted letters had given offense to the rebels, and by sending a delegation to Braddock's Field that expressed support for the gathering.[73] Brackenridge prevailed upon the crowd to limit the protest to a defiant march through the town. In Pittsburgh, only the barns of Major Kirkpatrick were torched.[74]

Meeting at Whiskey Point

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Whiskey Point

Pennsylvania Historical Marker signification




Whiskey Rebellion is located in Pennsylvania

Whiskey Rebellion

 
Location: Main Street between First Street & Park Avenue
Monongahela
Coordinates: 40.20015°N 79.92258°W
PA marker dedicated: 26 May 1949[75]

On 14 August, a convention of 226 whiskey rebels from the six counties was held at Parkison's Ferry (now known as Whiskey Point), present-day Monongahela. The convention considered resolutions, which were drafted by Brackenridge, Gallatin, David Bradford, and an eccentric preacher named Herman Husband, a delegate from Bedford County. Husband, a well-known local figure, was a radical champion of democracy who had taken part in the Regulator movement in North Carolina 25 years earlier.[76] The Parkison's Ferry convention also appointed a committee to meet with the peace commissioners who had been sent west by President Washington.[77] There, Gallatin presented an eloquent speech in favor of peace and against proposals from Bradford to further revolt.[75]

Federal response

President Washington, confronted with what appeared to be an armed insurrection in western Pennsylvania, proceeded cautiously. Although determined to maintain government authority, he did not want to alienate public opinion. He asked his cabinet for written opinions about how to deal with the crisis. The cabinet recommended the use of force, except for Secretary of State Edmund Randolph, who urged reconciliation.[78] Washington did both: he sent commissioners to meet with the rebels while raising a militia army. Washington privately doubted the commissioners could accomplish anything, and believed a military expedition would be needed to suppress further violence.[79] For this reason, historians have sometimes charged that the peace commission was sent only for the sake of appearances, and that the use of force was never in doubt.[80] Historians Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick argued that the military expedition was "itself a part of the reconciliation process", since a show of overwhelming force would make further violence less likely.[81]

Meanwhile, Hamilton began publishing essays under the name of "Tully" in Philadelphia newspapers, denouncing mob violence in western Pennsylvania and advocating military action. Washington and Hamilton believed the Democratic-Republican Societies, which had been formed throughout the country, were the source of civic unrest. "Historians are not yet agreed on the exact role of the societies" in the Whiskey Rebellion, wrote historian Mark Spencer in 2003, "but there was a degree of overlap between society membership and the Whiskey Rebels".[82]

Before troops could be raised, the Militia Act of 1792 required a justice of the United States Supreme Court to certify that law enforcement was beyond the control of local authorities. On 4 August 1794, Justice James Wilson delivered his opinion that western Pennsylvania was in a state of rebellion.[83] On 7 August, Washington issued a presidential proclamation announcing, with "the deepest regret", that the militia would be called out to suppress the rebellion. He commanded insurgents in western Pennsylvania to disperse by September 1.[84]

Negotiations

In early August 1794, Washington dispatched three commissioners, all of them Pennsylvanians, to the west: Attorney General William Bradford, Justice Jasper Yeates of the Pennsylvania Supreme Court, and Senator James Ross. Beginning on 21 August, the commissioners met with a committee of westerners that included Brackenridge and Gallatin. The government commissioners told the committee that it must unanimously agree to renounce violence and submit to U.S. laws, and that a popular referendum must be held to determine if the local people supported the decision. Those who agreed to these terms would be given amnesty from further prosecution.[85]

The committee, divided between radicals and moderates, narrowly passed a resolution agreeing to submit to the government's terms. The popular referendum, which was held on 11 September, also produced mixed results. Some townships overwhelmingly supported submitting to U.S. law, but opposition to the government remained strong in areas where poor and landless people predominated.[86] The final report of the commissioners recommended the use of the military to enforce the laws.[87] The trend was towards submission, however, and westerners dispatched two representatives, William Findley and David Redick, to meet with Washington and to halt the progress of the oncoming army. Washington and Hamilton declined, arguing that violence would likely reemerge if the army turned back.[86]

Militia expedition

Militia was called up from New Jersey, Maryland, Virginia, and eastern Pennsylvania. The federalized militia force of 12,950 men was a large army by American standards of the time: the army that had been with Washington during the Revolutionary War had often been smaller.[88] Because relatively few men volunteered for militia service, a draft was used to fill out the ranks.[89] Draft evasion was widespread, and conscription efforts resulted in protests and riots, even in eastern areas. Three counties in eastern Virginia were the scenes of armed draft resistance.[90] In Maryland, Governor Thomas Sim Lee sent 800 men to quash an antidraft riot in Hagerstown; about 150 people were arrested.[91]


 


 Governor Henry Lee of Virginia commanded the federalized militia army.
Liberty poles were raised in various places as the militia was recruited, worrying federal officials. A liberty pole was raised in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, on 11 September 1794.[92] When the federalized militia arrived in that town later that month, suspected pole-raisers were rounded up. Two civilians were killed in these operations. On 29 September, an unarmed boy was shot by an officer whose pistol accidentally fired. Two days later, a man was stabbed to death by a soldier while resisting arrest. President Washington ordered the arrest of the two soldiers and had them turned over to civilian authorities. A state judge determined the deaths had been accidental, and the soldiers were released.[93]

In October 1794, Washington traveled west to review the progress of the military expedition. According to historian Joseph Ellis, this would be "the first and only time a sitting American president led troops in the field".[94] Jonathan Forman, who led the Third Infantry Regiment of New Jersey troops against the Whiskey Rebellion,[95] wrote about his encounter with Washington: "October 3d Marched early in the morning for Harrisburgh, where we arrived about 12 O'clock. About 1 O'Clock recd. information of the Presidents approach on which, I had the regiment paraded, timely for his reception, & considerably to my satisfaction. Being afterwards invited to his quarters he made enquiry into the circumstances of the man [an incident between a militia man and an old soldier mentioned earlier in the journal] & seemed satisfied with the information."[96] Washington met with the western representatives in Bedford, Pennsylvania, on October 9 before going to Fort Cumberland in Maryland to review the southern wing of the army.[97] Convinced the federalized militia would meet little resistance, he placed the army under the command of the governor of Virginia, Henry "Lighthorse Harry" Lee, a hero of the Revolutionary War. Washington returned to Philadelphia; Hamilton remained with the army as civilian adviser.[98]

The insurrection collapsed as the army marched into western Pennsylvania in October 1794. Some of the most prominent leaders of the insurrection, like David Bradford, fled westward to safety. After an investigation, federal government officials arrested about 20 people and brought them back to Philadelphia for trial.[99] Eventually, a federal grand jury indicted 24 men for high treason.[100] Most of the accused had eluded capture, so only ten men stood trial for treason in federal court.[101] Of these, only Philip Wigle[nb 1] and John Mitchell were convicted. Wigle had beaten up a tax collector and burned his house; Mitchell was a simpleton who had been convinced by David Bradford to rob the U.S. mail. Both men were sentenced to death by hanging, but they were pardoned by President Washington.[102] Pennsylvania state courts were more successful in prosecuting lawbreakers, securing numerous convictions for assault and rioting.[103]

Legacy

The Washington administration's suppression of the Whiskey Rebellion met with widespread popular approval.[104] The episode demonstrated the new national government had the willingness and ability to suppress violent resistance to its laws. It was therefore viewed by the Washington administration as a success, a view that has generally been endorsed by historians.[105] The Washington administration and its supporters usually did not mention, however, that the whiskey excise remained difficult to collect, and that many westerners continued to refuse to pay the tax.[28] The events contributed to the formation of political parties in the United States, a process already underway.[106] The whiskey tax was repealed after Thomas Jefferson's Republican Party, which opposed the Federalist Party of Hamilton and Washington, came to power in 1801.[107]

The Rebellion raised the question of what kinds of protests were permissible under the new Constitution. Legal historian Christian G. Fritz argued, even after ratification of the Constitution, there was not yet a consensus about sovereignty in the United States. Federalists believed the government was sovereign because it had been established by the people, so radical protest actions, which were permissible during the American Revolution, were no longer legitimate. But the Whiskey Rebels and their defenders believed the Revolution had established the people as a "collective sovereign", and the people had the collective right to change or challenge the government through extraconstitutional means.[108]

Historian Steven Boyd argued that the suppression of the Whiskey Rebellion prompted anti-Federalist westerners to finally accept the Constitution, and to seek change by voting for Republicans rather than resisting the government. Federalists, for their part, came to accept that the people could play a greater role in governance. Although Federalists would attempt to restrict speech critical of the government with the Alien and Sedition Acts in 1798, after the Whiskey Rebellion, says Boyd, Federalists no longer challenged the freedom of assembly and the right to petition.[109]

In popular culture

Soon after the Whiskey Rebellion, actress-playwright Susanna Rowson wrote a stage musical about the insurrection entitled "The Volunteers", with music by composer Alexander Reinagle. The play is now lost, but the songs survive, and suggest that Rowson's interpretation was pro-Federalist. The musical celebrated the militiamen who put down the rebellion, the "volunteers" of the title, as American heroes.[110] President Washington and Martha Washington attended a performance of the play in Philadelphia in January 1795.[111]

In L. Neil Smith's alternate history novel The Probability Broach (1980), Albert Gallatin convinces the militia not to put down the rebellion, but instead to march on the nation's capital, execute George Washington for treason, and replace the Constitution with a revised Articles of Confederation. As a result, the United States becomes a libertarian utopia called the North American Confederacy.[112][113]

In the satirical novel Joyleg, A Folly by Avram Davidson and Ward Moore, a veteran of both the American Revolutionary War and the Whiskey Rebellion is found alive and very well in the Tennessee backwoods, having survived over the centuries by daily soaks in whisky of his own making, to hilariously face the world of the 1960s.

In 2012, Wigle Whiskey, the first distillery in Pittsburgh since Prohibition, was founded.[114] It was named after Philip Wigle.[114]

From 1971-1993, the Hall of Presidents at Walt Disney World in Florida included a section on the Whiskey Rebellion.

    MEXICO

1791    CENTRAL AMERICA. HAITI   .The institution of slavery was first abolished after the Haïtian Revolution led by     Toussaint L'Ouverture, in 179-1. The rebels demanded the abolition of slavery from the First Republic (179-2-180-4) on February 4, 179-4. Abbé Grégoire and the Society of the Friends of the Blacks (Société des Amis des Noirs), led by Jacques Pierre Brissot, were part of the abolitionist movement, which had laid important groundwork in building anti-slavery sentiment in the metropole. The first article of the law stated that "Slavery was abolished" in the French colonies, while the second article stated that "slave-owners would be indemnified" with financial compensation for the value of their slaves.However, Napoleon decided to reestablish slavery after becoming First Consul, and sent military governors and troops to do this. On May 10, HAITI. On May 15, 179-1, the French National Assembly granted political rights to all blacks and mulattoes who had been born free - but did not change the status quo regarding slavery. On August 22, 179-1, slaves in the north rose against their masters near Cap-Français (now Cap-Haïtien). This revolution spread rapidly and came under the leadership of Toussaint L'Ouverture. He is commonly referred to as the "Black Napoleon." He soon formed alliances with the gens de couleur and the maroons, whose rights had been revoked by the French government in retaliation for the uprising
1791    HAITI. David Brooks says that Haiti's poverty can be explained in large part by "the influence of the [V]oodoo religion, which spreads the message that life is capricious and planning futile." (New York Times, Jan. 15) These attacks on Voodoo go back over 200 years when the U.S.  bourgeoisie, which was in large part a slavocracy, was  completely shocked that the enslaved Africans of Haiti could organize themselves, rise up, smash the old order, kill their  masters and set up a new state that was able to maintain its  independence.Voodoo played an inspirational and unifying role in this revolution. It gave the enslaved African people of Haiti the  solidarity they needed to organize a mass uprising under the noses of the slave owners. Two hundred delegates gathered August 14, 1791, at  Bois-Caïman, set the date for the uprising for one week later,  and selected Boukman Dutty, a Voodoo priest, to lead the  uprising. According to well-founded but oral sources, Boukman made the following speech: "The god who created the sun which  gives us light, who rouses the waves and rules the storm,  though hidden in the clouds, he watches us. He sees all that  the white man does. The god of the white man inspires him with  crime, but our god calls upon us to do good works. Our god who  is good to us orders us to revenge our wrongs. He will direct  our arms and aid us. Throw away the symbol of the god of the whites who has so often caused us to weep, and listen to the   voice of liberty, which speaks in the hearts of us all."  This was not a "pact with the devil." It was a call for   revolution — a conscious, planned revolution  Another myth is that Haiti, once the richest European colon in the Western Hemisphere, is now the poorest nation because of some defect in its national character. For example, Brooks  claims "Responsibility is often not internalized." This is  nothing less than vile racism and baseless slander. To discount the effects of oppression, slavery and repression,  Brooks goes on to assert, "Well, [Haiti] has a history of oppression, slavery and colonialism. But so does Barbados, and  Barbados is doing pretty well." Haiti was rich before the enslaved Africans successfully  revolted because they were so harshly exploited. The wealth Haitians produced was one-third to one-half of the gross  domestic product of France, and supplied the foundations of its current national wealth. For 13 years France waged a  genocidal war of extermination against the Haitian people, killing over half of them. After a heroic rebellion in  Barbados, hundreds of rebels were executed, but the overall  lasting damage was limited compared to the slaughter of  Haitians.
                 

    SOUTH AMERICA1791 LA POLA. Policarpa Salavarrieta (c. 1791 – November 14, 1817), also known as La Pola, was
a Neogranadine seamstress who spied for the Revolutionary Forces during the
Spanish Reconquista of the Viceroyalty of New Granada. She was captured by
Spanish Royalists and ultimately executed for high treason. She is now
considered a heroine of the independence of Colombia.
Because her birth certificate was never found, her legal given name is unknown.
The name Salavarrieta is known only by the names her family and friends used.
Her father referred to her as Polonia in his will, which Salvador Contreras, the
priest who formalized the testament on December 13, 1802, confirmed.[1] Her
brother Bibiano, who was closest to her, called her Policarpa.
In her 1817 forged passport, used to get in and out of Bogotá during the
Reconquista, she appeared as Gregoria Apolinaria. Andrea Ricaurte de Lozano,
whom Policarpa lived with, and officially worked for in Bogotá, as well as
Ambrosio Almeyda, a guerrilla leader to whom she supplied information, also
called her by that name. Her contemporaries referred to her simply as La Pola,
but Policarpa Salavarrieta is the name by which she is remembered and
commemorated.
      Place and date of birthLa Pola's date and place of birth are also subject
to conjecture in the absence of legal documents. The popular version is that she
was born in the municipality of Guaduas, Cundinamarca, between 1790 and 1796.
However Rafael Pombo affirmed that she had been born in Mariquita, while José
Caicedo Rojas confirmed it as Bogotá.
Her date and place of birth can be surmised from information available about her
siblings which, curiously enough, were not lost.
Her siblings were:
  María Ignacia Clara, born in the San Miguel parish of Guaduas August 12,
  1789–1802
  José María de los Ángeles, baptised in Guaduas on August 12, 1790 - became an
  Augustinian friar
  Caterina, born in Guaduas, 1791
  Eduardo, born in Guaduas on November 3, 1792–1802
  Manuel, on May 26, born in Guaduas, 1796 - also became an Augustinian friar
  Francisco Antonio, baptised in the Santa Bárbara parish, Bogotá, 26 September
  1798
  Ramón, confirmed in Bogotá in 1800
  Bibiano, baptised in Bogotá, 1801.[2]
Judging by these family records and the fact that Policarpa was born between her
two religious brothers, she would appear to have been born between 1791 and
1796. The records also seem to indicate that the Salavarrieta family lived in
Guaduas and moved to Bogotá after Manuel was born in 1796.
In an attempt to reconcile the discrepancies the Colombian Academy of History
gave its final ruling on September 10, 1991, in favour of Guaduas, Cundinamarca,
as Policarpa's birthplace.[
 
Watercolor by José María Espinoza
Without being titled or of the hidalgo class, Policarpa's family were apparently
respectable and well-off, judging by her childhood home in Guaduas, now a
museum. The Salavarrieta Ríos family moved to Bogotá between 1796–1798, living
in a small house in the Santa Bárbara neighbourhood.


La Pola, Amar la hizo libre, fue una telenovela colombiana basada en hechos
históricos y producida por RCN Televisión, en donde se narra la vida política y
amorosa de Policarpa Salavarrieta ("La Pola"), mujer que se convirtió en una de
las figuras más relevantes en la historia de la Independencia de Colombia por
preferir la muerte en lugar de la sumisión. Pese a estar basada en la historia
de unos personajes reales, La Pola no dejará de ser una obra de ficción; según
su mismo director, lo que se pretende "es imaginar cómo era la vida de
personajes de los cuales conocemos mucho de su vida pública pero poco de su vida
privada". No obstante, la mayoría de sucesos ocurridos dentro de la trama, como
la vez en que La Pola se hace pasar por la Virgen María, son reales, ya que el
libretista y escritor Juan Carlos Pérez, hizo una investigación profunda de este
personaje durante 4 años. La parte de ficción se debe, a que igual que hacen los
historiadores que se dedican a investigar sobre este personaje histórico,
presentó las cosas según su interpretación.[1]
Cabe resaltar que gracias a la exhaustiva investigación del libretista, se
revelaron varios asuntos que pusieron en tela de juicio la heroicidad de varios
personajes ilustres de la Historia colombiana, pues a pesar de usar ficción para
narrar las vidas personales de algunos personajes, los demás hechos son
verídicos y corroborados por el autor, quien mediante la novela, no solo reveló
al país cosas que no enseñaron en los planteles educativos, como el fusilamiento
de los criollos ilustres, sino que destapó que al parecer, ninguno de ellos hizo
algo loable por la nación, sino que su lucha se centraba en obtener
codiciosamente el poder. Lo más triste del asunto es que la controversia se
desvió en el debate sobre las hijas de Nariño, en el que se cuestiona si son
suyas, o si fueron fruto del amor de Doña Magdalena Ortega, su esposa, con Jorge
Tadeo Lozano.
Protagonizada por Carolina Ramírez, Emmanuel Esparza la actuación antagónica de
Juliana Galvis y Manuel Navarro además cuenta con el protagonismo de Ana María
Estupiñán y Pablo Espinosa quienes interpretan a los protagonistas en sus etapas
juveniles. La teleserie se desarrolla a lo largo de una línea temporal de 10
años, razón por la que la producción cuenta con un amplio reparto con nuevos
actores en una segunda etapa temporal.
El lunes 13 de septiembre de 2010 se estrenó y ha generado un mayor interés de
la gente hacia la Historia, contando con un rating que supera las 40,
concretamente un 44.2.[2] La telenovela finalizo el 27 de julio de 2011 tras
diez meses de exitosa emisión. Alcanzando el primer y segundo lugar en la
telenovela mas vista en Colombia superando a la telenovela contrincante "La
Reina del Sur". El capítulo final de la telenovela causó tanta conmoción en
Colombia, que tuvieron que repetirlo al siguiente día de la emisión.
      

[] SinopsisNueva Granada, comienzos del siglo XIX. En esta época sólo hay
dos opciones: se es realista o patriota. Se vive una verdadera lucha por el
poder, lo que trae como consecuencia, injusticias, miles de lágrimas,
fusilamientos...¡guerra!. En este marco se tejen las historias más increíbles
porque la gente vive cada día literalmente como si fuera el último. En este
contexto se ubica la historia de La Pola, una fiera sin domar, una visionaria
llena de ideales y de ganas de luchar por la libertad, una mujer adelantada para
estos tiempos en donde el machismo imperante impide que el género femenino tenga
voz o voto. En esta época en el que el amor todavía es eterno y donde un beso lo
significa todo, La Pola vivirá un tormentoso, doloroso y apasionado romance con
Alejo Sabaraín, un hombre prohibido para élla desde todo aspecto, pues él es de
abolengo, de familia española, de otra clase, de otro color y además está de
parte de la Corona; en suma, una relación que es vista como un pecado. Pero la
atracción será tan fuerte que la pareja intentará gozar de su amor, sin importar
cual sea el obstáculo, así se trate la muerte.
[] ArgumentoHacia 1810, de entre las miles voces que solicitan libertad en
Colombia, se oye fuerte el clamor de una joven y altiva mestiza de familia
acomodada, quien se rebela contra lo establecido, se levanta contra la
injusticia, escupe a todo un Imperio, y lucha, además, por un amor prohibido. Es
la voz e historia de Policarpa Salavarrieta, más conocida como "La Pola". Ella
es una "espía" que trabaja para las fuerzas patriotas en la guerra de la
independencia contra España, y que de manera correspondida se enamora de Alejo
Sabaraín, un educado joven español que, aunque comprometido desde niño con María
Ignacia Valencia, una mujer de la aristocracia Payanesa, no se puede resistir a
la impulsiva, valiente y apasionada Policarpa. Aún así, Alejo no sabe si pueda
sacrificarlo todo por defender su amor mecido entre dos bandos dada su
descomunal lealtad hacia la corona y el Rey de España.
Ahora en dos mundos enfrentados por el odio, dos mujeres luchan por un amor y un
amor pelea contra el mundo. La Pola tendrá que separar sus convicciones de sus
sentimientos y enfrentar a un imperio, ya sea, como la peor de las traidoras, o
como la mejor de las heroínas. Policarpa Salavarrieta, La Pola, una mujer contra
un Imperio y una mujer que cometió el peor de los pecados: adelantarse a su
época.
[] Descripción de los personajes[] Apolonia Salavarrieta "La
Pola"Interpretada en la adolescencia por: Ana María Estupiñán. Interpretada en
la adultez por: Carolina Ramírez.La más grande heroína de la independencia de
Colombia. De rasgos mestizos, hermosa y sensual. No nació heroína, fueron las
circunstancias las que la llevaron hasta donde llegó. Valiente, impertinente,
impulsiva, pero también es una mujer muy humana, llena de errores, de
contradicciones; no se queda callada ante nada, es frentera a morir (una
cualidad que a veces se le convierte en defecto). Está llena de pasión y de la
misma manera vive la vida. Debe renunciar a ser madre y a ser esposa para asumir
su destino. Entiende perfectamente lo que significa "el valor de la libertad".
La diferencia entre la Pola y las demás mujeres es que a ellas les enseñaron que
ser mujer es encontrar un marido, obedecerle, formar un hogar, mientras esta
joven sigue sus instintos, busca qué es lo que la hace vibrar en la vida.
[] Alejo SabarainInterpretado en la adolescencia por: Pablo Espinosa.
Interpretado en la adultez por: Emmanuel Esparza. Enamorado de la Pola. Justo,
ético, educado, decente, caballeroso y de corazón noble. Tiene ese tipo de
fisonomía de hombre al que las mujeres quisieran proteger. Alejo es instruido,
ha leído y tiene herramientas para entender como es el mundo. Tiene muy
arraigada la religión y la raza, sabe que mezclarse con mestizas es pecado, es
ilícito y castigado por Dios. Pero, a pesar de estar comprometido con María
Ignacia, La Pola lo enloquece; su piel, su boca, su olor lo vuelven irracional.
Cuando está lejos de ella, Alejo puede recuperar el control sobre cuenta de sus
supuestas equivocaciones. Junto a ella le resulta imposible. Su papá le ha
pegado desde siempre porque odia su debilidad. Quisiera que su padre lo amara y
lo apreciara como lo hace con su hermano Leandro, pero dado su carácter eso
parece imposible.
[] María Ignacia ValenciaInterpretada en la adolescencia por: Matilde
Lemaitre. Interpretada en la adultez por: Juliana Galvis. Prometida eterna de
Alejo Sabaraín. Virgen, delicada, femenina, enfermiza, dulcísima, infantil e
inmadura. Es una niña rica hija de criollos que personifica a la mujer "blanca
100%" de la época, con toda su educación tradicional y religiosa, sus normas y
restricciones. Sus papás se desviven por ella. Sueña con el matrimonio, hijos,
ser una buena esposa y dedicarse a su familia. Cree como es normal en esta
época, que es inferior al hombre por lo que es obediente y sumisa con ellos. Lo
que María Ignacia es y representa, contrasta con la Pola. Son polos opuestos. No
es maquiavélica, pero su amor y el derecho que cree tener sobre Alejo la hace
capaz de cualquier cosa. Al punto de traicionar a su eterno amor con tal de
alejarlo de la Pola a quien su amor le pertenecerá para la eternidad.
[] Leandro SabaraínInterpretado en la adolescencia por: Joel Bosqued.
Interpretado en la adultez por: José Sospedra. Hermano único de Alejo.
Apasionado por la milicia. Se muestra clasista como su padre por quién guarda un
temor idólatra. Prefería vivir en España. Es el orgullo de su padre pues su
obediencia lo ha ido perfilando como un hombre hecho a la medida de sus
requerimientos. Tiene una personalidad contradictoria, quiere a su hermano pero
no tiene problema en traicionarlo; aparenta ser un hijo obediente (obedece a su
padre pero sólo para congraciarse con él). Muere en un combate acuchillado.
(Falleció)
[] Antonio NariñoInterpretado por: Luis Fernando Hoyos. El Precursor de la
Independencia (el que marcó el camino). Elegido el colombiano de todos los
tiempos. Intelectual por gusto y militar por necesidad. Honesto, valiente,
culto, apasionado, fuerte y muy inteligente. Es un personaje blanco, sin dobles
intenciones. Frentero y valiente hasta el límite de la locura. Visionario, le
cabe el mundo en la cabeza. Curtido por los sufrimientos, entendiendo su
tragedia podemos comprender las razones por las cuales valió la pena luchar a
muerte contra la hegemonía española. Siempre fiel a sus principios y a sus
amigos. No obstante, cuando se le calienta la cabeza, es capaz de cualquier
cosa.
[] Jorge Tadeo LozanoInterpretado por: Sebastián Martínez. Hermano del
Marqués de San Jorge. Perteneciente a la única familia totalmente noble de
Santafé, Tadeo Lozano es encantador, inteligente, aventurero, con sentido del
humor, enamoradizo, pero caprichoso, irresponsable e incluso algo cobarde y
vengativo. Cree que por su dinero y sus títulos, el mundo le pertenece. Intenta
lograr todo lo que se propone. Le gusta desafiar lo establecido. Su sueño es
llegar a ser Rey de la Nueva Granada. Incluso cuando llega a ser presidente,
alcanzan a llamarlo Jorge I, pero sólo por burlarse de él. Esta enamorado de
Magdalena Ortega de Nariño, lo cual le hace tener problemas gravísimos con el
esposo de esta, Antonio Nariño. (Fusilado)
[] Juan Sámanointerpretado por: Manuel Navarro. Militar. Mariscal de la
Nueva Granada. Militar sin escrúpulos, lujurioso y ambicioso. El sueño de toda
su vida fue ser Virrey. Le encanta la adulación, la fama, el dinero. Cojo y algo
jorobado, de apariencia desagradable. Definido como un militar brusco, de
carácter díscolo, irascible, regañón y muy cruel con los pobres patriotas.
Cínico, algo desquiciado, de hecho, actúa como un demente. Excelente actor. Si
se lo propone, puede fingir tristeza hasta las lágrimas. Pasa de ultra racista,
odia a los americanos pero le fascinan las americanas sin importar su color. Por
detrás de la gente, habla pésimo de ella, hasta de sus superiores.
[] Magdalena Ortega de NariñoInterpretada por: Valentina Rendón. Esposa de
Antonio Nariño y madre de sus hijos. Distinguida, hogareña, religiosa. De cuna
noble y acomodada, formada fuertemente en valores. Ingenua, sumisa, obediente a
su esposo y dependiente de él. Como todas las mujeres de la época, no toma parte
en las decisiones importantes, ni siquiera sobre ella misma. Sueña con tener una
vida tranquila, pero todo le cambia cuando a Nariño lo encarcelan. Se queda sin
piso, sin ayuda, sin dinero, por lo que no sabe qué hacer. Llega a odiar a su
esposo por haberla metido en semejante lío, pero cuando Nariño regresa a su casa
es cuando Magdalena descubre al hombre que tenía a su lado. (Falleció)
[] Catarina SalavarrietaInterpretada en la adolescencia por: Laura Torres
y en la adultez por Zharick León. Hermana mayor de La Pola. Es racista,
arribista, vanidosa, caprichosa, cómoda, conformista; en suma, muy diferente a
su hermana. Seguidora de las normas de su tiempo, acepta casarse sin amor y ser
fiel servidora de su marido, Domingo García, por el sueño de ser tratada como
"doña". Ante la falta de sus padres, debe hacerse cargo de sus hermanos, pero no
tiene vocación ni disposición para éllo. La vida se encarga de darle una lección
que la obliga a cuestionarse profundamente. Se trata del amor que llega a ella a
través de los sentidos, pero personificado en lo que más odia y hace lo que sea
por estar con el amor de su vida que era esclavo de su marido-Domingo- y con su
hijo, que es lo que más quiere.
[] Domingo GarcíaInterpretado por: Diego Trujillo. Mejor amigo de Joaquín.
Es noble, trabajador, machista, religioso y por educación abusivo con las
personas que considera de menor clase como sus esclavos. Es un comerciante que
en el pasado fue comunero pero trata de olvidarlo por miedo a las represalias de
la Corona. Puede pasar de ser un corderito que se deja manipular a ser un hombre
violento, lleno de rabia. Se enamora perdidamente de Catarina, la hermana de La
Pola, pero siente que jamás logrará que sea totalmente suya. Su amor hacia ella
lo enloquece.(Falleció)
[] JulianoInterpretado por: Eduard Martínez ( Juliano Niño ) y Luis Felipe
Cortés ( Juliano Adulto ). Esclavo de Domingo García. Humilde pero con dignidad.
Valiente, buen hijo y esposo entregado. Trabajador, cumplidor, perseverante,
fiel y leal. Se sabe esclavo y es sumiso, pero jamás abandona su sueño de
libertad. De los pocos a los que todavía les importa sus ancestros, sus
orígenes. No le da miedo enfrentarse y luchar por lo que cree. Para él, los
lazos de sangre son sagrados. Pese a sus virtudes, el amor lo obligará a
cuestionar su vida.
[] Joaquín SalavarrietaInterpretado por: Julián Arango. Padre de la Pola.
Revolucionario moderado, trabajador, responsable, fiel a sus principios.
Analfabeto, es el tipo de hombre que se hizo a pulso. En el pasado fue comunero
y en la actualidad trabaja con mulas para sostener a su familia. Le duele la
discriminación y se lo trata de inculcar a sus hijos. Ama a su esposa aunque
sabe que son muy diferentes. Jamás ha podido olvidar la traición a los comuneros
y la muerte de sus líderes. Espera que sus hijos se casen con gente buena y de
principios, sin importar su color, sangre o títulos. (Falleció)
[] Mariana RíosInterpretada por: Coraima Torres. Mamá de la Pola.
Protectora, dominante, religiosa, entregada a su familia pero un poco arribista.
No tiene origen noble pero su piel es blanca. Toda la vida ha soñado con vivir
en Santafé, tener una buena casa y cosas finas. También con casar a sus hijos
con gente noble… o al menos pura de sangre. Aunque ama a Joaquín, se avergüenza
de su pasado comunero. Ella trata de mantener apagada esa llama revolucionaria
que, sabe, aún subsiste en el corazón de su esposo.(Falleció)
[] Francisco Javier Sabarain y San VicenteInterpretado por: Andoni
Ferreño. Padre de Alejo y Leandro Sabaraín. Recaudador de impuestos. Español muy
racista que siente que los americanos son inferiores. En su país pertenecía a
una familia venida a menos aunque en América se da ínfulas de gran señor, pese a
que vive a costas del dinero y títulos de su esposa. Ambicioso, maquiavélico,
perezoso, amante de la buena vida, muy hábil para mentir y engañar. Hipócrita y
adulador de acuerdo a su conveniencia. Quiere que sus hijos sean militares
porque eso es avanzar a lo más alto en la escala social. Está orgulloso de su
hijo Leandro, pero siente vergüenza de Alejo y lo cree de raza inferior
[] María Teresa Ramos de SabarainInterpretada por: Marcela Agudelo. Madre
de Alejo. De origen criollo, pero de una familia adinerada de Mariquita
(familiares lejanos de los Valencia de Popayán). Es una mujer gris e infeliz.
Aunque aguarda sentimientos nobles es débil de carácter y sumisa a los deseos de
su marido. Siente que Alejo es más como ella pero, aunque lo ama, no tiene la
fortaleza de defenderlo ni de protegerlo. En el fondo, podría entender el amor
de su hijo por La Pola, pero jamás sería capaz de admitirlo a causa de su
formación previa, basada en los valores tradicionales de la época que además
marcaban el servilismo como una virtud necesaria de la mujer a su marido.
[] Gaspar Alonso de ValenciaInterpretado por: Héctor de Malba. Padre de
María Ignacia. Hombre adinerado. Hijo de español y criollos. De principios, buen
padre y leal al rey. Paciente, justo pero temperamental, tiene sus límites. Es
menos arribista que Eusebia, su esposa, pero se deja dominar por ella. Jamás
logra confiar en Francisco, el padre de Alejo, aunque por evitar confrontaciones
con su mujer, lo tolera. Se vuelve patriota al ser testigo de todas las
arbitrariedades que cometen los españoles puros en América.
[] Eusebia Caicedo Santamaría de Valencia.Interpretada por: María Helena
Doering. Madre de María Ignacia. Es una mujer de doble moral, aunque su esencia
no es mala. Quiere que sus hijos emparenten con españoles a como dé lugar, pues
es arribista y le importa mucho el qué dirán. Domina a Gaspar, su esposo, a su
antojo y lo crítica inconmensurablemente cuando descubre que este hombre apoya
la causa patriota.
[] GertudrisInterpretada por: Ana María Arango. Madrina de Catarina.
Beata, fanática, pero de doble moral, interesada y amargada. A la muerte de los
padres Salavarrieta, Gertrudis se encarga de Catarina y de la Pola. Su meta:
casarlas a las dos con hombres blancos, adinerados que le den la vida digna que
nunca tuvo. Es experta en las mezclas de raza y a todo el mundo le saca la
cuenta de qué tan pura es su sangre.
[] NicolasaInterpretada por Ana Mosquera. Esclava de Catarina. Princesa
africana por descendencia. Digna, altiva, imponente. Tiene esa dignidad de
alguien que realmente tiene cuna noble. Catarina lo percibe y por eso la odia.
Aborrece la esclavitud, no podría soportar que un hijo suyo sea esclavo. Jamás
logran domesticarla del todo. Ama a Juliano aunque es consciente de que él no es
digno de ella. (Falleció)
[] José María ArcosInterpretado por: Gabriel Ochoa. Compañero de Alejo
Sabarain. Soldado de la Campaña del Sur. Enamoradizo, tierno, sentimental. Con
conciencia de clase, sabe que no es tan distinguido como la mayoría de sus
compañeros. Queda embrujado, al igual que muchos hombres, con la enigmática
belleza de la Pola. (Fusilado)
[] José María CarbonellInterpretado por: Kike Mendoza. Forma parte de los
criollos pero no es aceptado como tal porque su origen no es tan puro (español –
criollo). Fiel a sus principios e incondicional con las ideas política de
Nariño. Posee una energía arrolladora con las masas. Muy básico, se mueve por
las pasiones, tal vez por eso es que tiene muchos líos con su esposa, que es una
tía de Nariño. (Ahorcado)
[] Antonio BarayaInterpretado por: Gustavo Angarita Jr. Ambicioso y buen
guerrero. No tiene las capacidades intelectuales ni el carisma de su amigo
Antonio Nariño y eso lo enfurece. Aunque se llena de justificaciones, decide
traicionar a Nariño para tratar de convertirse en un hombre de su talla. Después
cae en la cuenta de su equivocación, aunque puede que sea demasiado tarde para
recuperar su amistad. (Fusilado)
[] Camilo TorresInterpretado por: Alejandro Martínez. Hijo de una familia
acaudalada. Distinguido y de buenos modales. No es guerrero, ni pretende serlo.
En todas sus decisiones, sus intereses económicos están de por medio. Muy en el
fondo, no cree que Fernando VII sea capaz de hacer algo por recuperar las
Indias. (Fusilado)
[] Virrey Antonio Amar y BorbónInterpretado por: Mariano Venancio. Virrey
de la Nueva Granada. En el pasado fue un destacado militar que luchó contra los
ingleses en Gibraltar. Llegó a Santafé en 1803 como virrey cuando tenía 61 años.
El 20 de julio de 1810, la Junta lo nombra como el presidente de la Junta de
Santafé pero el pueblo no está de acuerdo y el 13 de agosto junto a su esposa
son llevados presos y luego llevados a España.
[] Francisco José de CaldasInterpretado por: Carlos Humberto Camacho.
Proveniente de una familia noble, estuvo en los mejores colegios de la Nueva
Granada. Intelectual de la época. Tiene una inquietud particular por el
conocimiento. Participa en la expedición botánica y dirige el observatorio
astronómico de la Nueva Granada. Pero el anhelo de libertad puede más, y se
decide a luchar incansable por la independencia. Participa en el levantamiento
popular del 20 de julio de 1810. Más tarde entra como ingeniero militar al
servicio de las fuerzas patriotas. (Fusilado)
[] Ambrosio AlmeidaInterpretado por: Diego Cadavid. Un misterioso hombre
que quiere comprar la casa de Domingo en la cual planea guardar armamento,
defiende la misma causa de La Pola, se siente atraido por la belleza de
Policarpa Salavarrieta y la ayuda a dar algunos golpes contra Sámano.
[] Francisco de Paula SantanderInterpretado por: Juan Carlos Vargas. Se da
cuenta de la calidad de persona que es la Pola y acepta acordar con ella la
alianza entre los patriotas de Santafé con los valientes de los llanos.
Santander le advierte a la mestiza que sin información sobre las tropas
realistas que se encuentran en Santafé, no podrán hacer nada.
[] Pablo MorilloInterpretado por: Rafael Taibo. Deja con todo listo a los
habitantes de Santafé que le tenían preparado un recibimiento con honores. Por
lo visto, el nuevo representante de la Corona no está dispuesto a hacer
concesiones con ningún americano y amenaza con castigar a todo aquel que haya
traicionado a España. Esta actitud aumenta los temores de los nobles
santafereños, quienes ven en riesgo su vida.

1791    EUROPE - The  French Revolution and The Rights of Man improve the lives of Jews in France  But the bourgeois regimes reenforced sexual repression to the point that it became known as "the sexual inquisition". The slogan of "Liberty, Equality and Fraternity" of the French Revolution embodied the most advanced ideas of  the rising bourgeoisie, but it never went beyond a formal declaration.

1791    Le Chapelier's law forbidding worker's leagues in France
    First anti-French coalition formed by Austria and Prussia    
    French constitution adopted   
                        
        FRANCE. In June the royals tried to flee France, but were caught near Varennes and returned to Paris. The King's treason to France had the effect of having the people support the idea of a republic. The conservative wing of the Assembly, in support of the King, put out a false version of the incident to the effect that he had been kidnaped, and restored Louis to the throne. Indignantly, the political clubs of Paris began serious agitation for a republic. On July 17 a large peaceful demonstration took place on the Champ-des-Mars. The Assembly under Lafayette gave orders to fire on the crowd, many of whom were killed or wounded. As a result the right wing  of the Jacobins supported La Fayette and the bourgeoisie and set up the Feuillants. The leadership of the Jacobins then passed into the hands of Robespierre and Brissot   On Sept 13th the King signed a Constitutional Monarchy drafted by the Assembly, with anti-democratic electoral qualifications. The Assembly was disbanded.France declares war on Austria   A new Assembly was constituted headed by the Feuillants. France declares war on Austria. Louis hoped that foreign allied intervention would bolster the tottering monarchy. Robespierre and Marat protested against the war, pointing out that it was vital to crush counterrevolution at home rather than wasting resources on an adventure. The Brissot faction (later the Girondins) were in favor of the war and this led to a new split in the Jacobins   The Girondins took over the ministries to carry out the war. However, since the war began with a French defeat, the Feuillants took over once again. Lafayette sabotaged the revolutionary army, unwilling to let it take power. The Queen kept up a steady correspondence to Vienna with information regarding the plans of the French army. This enabled the armies of Austria and Prussia to achieve success at little cost, chasing out the retreating and demoralized French troops. The Jacobins under Robespierre, Marat and Danton by this time had gained great influence with the people. They pointed out that it was impossible to make headway without securing the rearguard and ruling out treachery at home. Thousands of volunteers signed up to fight the interventionists. At this time the Marseillaise came into being and inspired the battalions to rush forward and meet the enemy. The Legislative Assembly was unable to channel the popular revolutionary fervor and suppress treachery. From July onwards the demand for the overthrow of the King was to resound louder and louder.
                                       
 
    RUSSIA

    MIDEAST

    AFRICA

    ASIA

    SOUTH ASIA

    AUSTRALIA
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      1792Treaty of JassyEnds the Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792).
      Treaty of SeringapatamEnds the Third Anglo-Mysore War.

1792 WALL ST. In 1792, traders
formalized their association with the Buttonwood Agreement which was the origin
of the New York Stock Exchange.[18] The idea of the agreement was to make the
market more "structured" and "without the manipulative auctions", with a
commission structure.[16] Persons signing the agreement agreed to charge each
other a standard commission rate; persons not signing could still participate
but would be charged a higher commission for dealing


        1792    UNITED STATES CANADA EXPLORATION OF THE WEST. In 178-9 a Spanish expedition from Mexico took possession of the northwest coast, but in 179-0 Spain abandoned claims to the region (treaty of Oct. 28). In 179-2 Capt. George Vancouver explored the Pacific coast and circumnavigated Vancouver Island. In - Alexander Mackenzie reached the coast after the first overland journey from the east. Meanwhile (178-5-95) David Thompson had traversed much of the territory along the coast of Hudson Bay north to Fort Churchill, as well as the regions about Lake Winnipeg and along the Saskatchewan and Athabasca Rivers. Jay's Treaty between the United States and Great Britain (Nov. 19, 179-4) provided for a boundary commission to determine the frontier west of the Lake of the Woods. Despite the support of Indians like Joseph Brant during the American Revolution, Britain offended them by ceding large tracts of Indian land to the U.S.

    MEXICO

    CENTRAL AMERICA CARIBBEAN

    1792 SOUTH AMERICA    MIRANDA. En Miranda participó en la Batalla de Valmy, una de las batallas más importantes de las Guerras Revolucionarias Francesas Miranda en la Francia de la Revolución  En 1791, Miranda tomó parte activa en la Revolución Francesa. En París, hizo amistad con los girondinos Jacques Pierre Brissot y Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve, y sirvió brevemente como general en una sección del Ejército revolucionario francés (llamado entonces «La Convención») que lucho en la campaña de para conquistar los Países Bajos, llegando al grado de Mariscal de Francia, bajo el mando de Charles François Dumouriez. Durante la campaña participo en las batallas de Argonne, Wargemoulin, Amberes, Lieja, Tongres, Paliemberg y Valmy y alcanzo la posición de segundo jefe del ejército del norte del cual se separaría por grandes diferencias con Dumoriez.Arrestado varias veces durante el reinado del terror, Miranda fue amenazado con ser deportado después una medida del Directorio de la Monarquía y los Girondinos. A pesar de todo, su nombre permanece grabado en el Arco de Triunfo que fue construido durante el primer imperio.

1792    GALEANO. el tasajo, que pocos años antes era un artículo cubano de exportación, llegaba ya en grandes cantidades del extranjero, y Cuba continuaría importándolo en lo sucesivo . Languidecían el astillero y la fundición, caía verticalmente la producción de tabaco; la jornada de trabajo de los esclavos del azúcar  se extendía a veinte horas. Sobre las tierras humeantes se consolidaba el poder de la «sacarocracia». A fines del siglo XVIII, euforia de la cotización internacional por las nubes, la especulación volaba: los precios de la tierra se multiplicaban por veinte Güines; en La Habana el interés real del dinero era ocho veces más alto que el legal; en toda Cuba la tarifa de los bautismos, los entierros y las misas subía en proporción a la desatada carestía de los negros y los bueyes.   Los cronistas de otros tiempos decían que podía recorrerse Cuba, a todo lo largo, a la sombra de las palmas gigantescas y los bosques frondosos, en los que abundaban la caoba y el cedro, el ébano y los dagames. Se puede todavía admirar las maderas preciosas de Cuba en las mesas y en las ventanas de El Escorial o en las puertas del palacio real Madrid, pero la invasión cañera hizo arder, en Cuba, con varios fuegos sucesivos, los mejores bosques vírgenes de cuantos antes cubrían su suelo. En los mismos años en que arrasaba su propia floresta, Cuba se convertía en la principal compradora de madera de los Estados Unidos. El cultivo extensivo de la caña, cultivo de rapiña, no solo implicó la muerte del bosque sino también, a largo plazo, «la muerte de la fabulosa fertilidad de la isla ». Los bosques eran entregados a las llamas y la erosión no demoraba en morder los suelos indefensos; miles de arroyos se secaron. Actualmente, el rendimiento por hectáreas de las plantaciones azucareras de Cuba es inferior en más de tres veces al de Perú, y cuatro veces y media menor que el de Hawai. El riesgo y la fertilización de la tierra constituyen tareas prioritarias para la revolución cubana. Se están multiplicando las presas hidráulicas, grandes y pequeñas, mientras se canalizan los campos y se diseminan, sobre las castigadas tierras, los abonos.   La «sacarocracia» alumbró su engañosa fortuna al tiempo que sellaba la dependencia de Cuba, una factoría distinguida cuya economía quedó enferma de diabetes. Entre quienes devastaron las tierras más fértiles por medios brutales había personajes de refinada cultura europea, que sabían reconocer un Brueghel auténtico y podían comprarlo; de sus frecuentes viajes a París traían vasijas etruscas y ánforas griegas, gobelinos franceses y biombos Ming, paisajes y retratos de los más cotizados artistas británicos. Me sorprendió descubrir, en la cocina de una mansión de La Habana, una gigantesca caja fuerte, con combinación secreta, que una condesa usaba para guardar la vajilla. Hasta 1959 no se construían fábricas, sino castillos de azúcar: el azúcar ponía y sacaba dictadores, proporcionaba o negaba trabajo a los obreros, decidía el ritmo de las danzas de los millones y las crisis terribles. La ciudad de Trinidad es, hoy, un cadáver resplandeciente. A mediados del siglo XIX, había en Trinidad más de cuarenta ingenios, que producían 700 mil arrobas de azúcar. Los campesinos pobres que cultivaban tabaco habían sido desplazados por la violencia, y la zona, que había sido también ganadera, y que antes exportan carne, comía carne traída de fuera. Brotaron palacios coloniales, con sus portales de sombra cómplice, sus aposentos de altos techos, arañas con lluvia de cristales, alfombras persas, un silencio de terciopelo y en el aire las ondas del minué, los espejos en los salones para devolver la imagen de los caballeros de peluquín y zapatos con hebilla. Ahí está, ahora, el testimonio de los grandes esqueletos de mármol o piedra, la soberbia de los campanarios mudos, las calesas invadidas por el pasto. A Trinidad le dicen ahora «la ciudad de los tuvo», porque sus sobrevivientes blancos siempre hablan de algún antepasado que tuvo el poder y la gloria.

1792    BOLIVAR. Concepción murió el 6 de julio de, cuando Simón tenía nueve años, pero tomando la precaución de hacer un testamento en el que dispuso quién debería hacerse cargo de sus hijos.Los hermanos Bolívar pasaron entonces a la custodia de su abuelo, don Feliciano Palacios, que cuando asumió el papel de tutor se sentía tan enfermo que empezó a preparar también su testamento para designar un sustituto como tutor de sus nietos y decidió pedir opinión a éstos para respetar su voluntad.
 1792 -
To the Legislature and the Executive Directory of the French Republic

THE plan contained in this work is not adapted for any particular country alone: the principle on which it is based is general. But as the rights of man are a new study in this world, and one needing protection from priestly imposture, and the insolence of oppressions too long established, I have thought it right to place this little work under your safeguard.

When we reflect on the long and dense night in which France and all Europe have remained plunged by their governments and their priests, we must feel less surprise than grief at the bewilderment caused by the first burst of light that dispels the darkness. The eye accustomed to darkness can hardly bear at first the broad daylight. It is by usage the eye learns to see, and it is the same inpassing from any situation to its opposite.

As we have not at one instant renounced all our errors, we cannot at one stroke acquire knowledge of all our rights. France has had the honor of adding to the word Liberty that of Equality; and this word signifies essentially a principle that admits of no gradation in the things to which it applies. But equality is often misunderstood, often misapplied, and often violated.

Liberty and Property are words expressing all those of our possessions which are not of an intellectual nature. There are two kinds of property. Firstly, natural property, or that which comes to us from the Creator of the universe--such as the earth,air, water. Secondly, artificial or acquired property--theinvention of men.

In the latter, equality is impossible; for to distribute it equally it would be necessary that all should have contributed in the same proportion, which can never be the case; and this being the case, every individual would hold on to his own property, as his right share. Equality of natural property is the subject of this little essay. Every individual in the world is born therein with legitimate claims on a certain kindof property, or its equivalent.

The right of voting for persons charged with the execution of the laws that govern society is inherent in the word liberty, and constitutes the equality of personal rights. But even if that right (of voting) were inherent in property, which I deny, the right of suffrage would still belong to all equally, because, as I have said, all individuals have legitimate birthrights in a certain species of property.

I have always considered the present Constitution of the French Republic the best organized system the human mind has yet produced. But I hope my former colleagues will not be offended if I warn them of an error which has slipped into its principle. Equality of the right of suffrage is not maintained. This right is in it connected with a condition on which it ought not todepend; that is, with a proportion of a certain tax called"direct."

The dignity of suffrage is thus lowered; and, in placing it in the scale with an inferior thing, the enthusiasm that right is capable of inspiring is diminished. It is impossible to find any equivalent counterpoise for the right of suffrage, because it is alone worthy to be its own basis, and cannot thrive as a graft,or an appendage.

Since the Constitution was established we have seen two conspiracies stranded--that of Babeuf, and that of some obscure personages who decorate themselves with the despicable name of "royalists." The defect in principle of the Constitution was the origin of Babeuf's conspiracy.

He availed himself of the resentment caused by this flaw, and instead of seeking a remedy by legitimate and constitutional means, or proposing some measure useful to society, the conspirators did their best to renew disorder and confusion, and constituted themselves personally into a Directory, which is formally destructive of election and representation. They were, in fine, extravagant enough to suppose that society, occupied with its domestic affairs, would blindly yield to them a directorship usurped by violence.

The conspiracy of Babeuf was followed in a few months by that of the royalists, who foolishly flattered themselves with the notion of doing great things by feeble or foul means. They counted on all the discontented, from whatever cause, and tried to rouse, in their turn, the class of people who had beenfollowing the others. But these new chiefs acted as if they thought society had nothing more at heart than to maintain courtiers, pensioners, and all their train, under the contemptible title of royalty. My little essay will disabuse them, by showing that society is aiming at a very different end--maintaining itself.

We all know or should know, that the time during which a revolution is proceeding is not the time when its resulting advantages can be enjoyed. But had Babenf and his accomplices taken into consideration the condition of France under this Constitution, and compared it with what it was under the tragical revolutionary government, and during the execrable Reign of Terror, the rapidity of the alteration must have appeared to them very striking and astonishing. Famine has been replaced by abundance, and by the well-founded hope of a near and increasing prosperity.

As for the defect in the Constitution, I am fully convinced that it will be rectified constitutionally, and that this step is indispensable; for so long as it continues it will inspire the hopes and furnish the means of conspirators; and for the rest, it is regrettable that a Constitution so wisely organized should err so much in its principle. This fault exposes it to other dangers which will make themselves felt.

Intriguing candidates will go about among those who have not the means to pay the direct tax and pay it for them, on condition of receiving their votes. Let us maintain inviolably equality in the sacred right ofsuffrage: public security can never have a basis moresolid. Salut et Fraternité.

Your former colleague,
 Thomas Paine




Author's English Preface



THE following little piece was written in the winter of 1795 and '96; and, as I had not determined whether to publish it during the present war, or to wait till the commencement of a peace, it has lain by me, without alteration or addition, from the time it was written.

What has determined me to publish it now is a sermon preached by Watson, Bishop of Llandaff. Some of my readers will recollect, that this Bishop wrote a book entitled "An Apology for the Bible," in answer to my second part of "The Age of Reason." I procured a copy of his book, and he may depend upon hearing from me on that subject.

At the end of the Bishop's book is a list of the works he has written. Among which is the sermon alluded to ; it is entitled: "The Wisdom and Goodness of God, in having made both Rich and Poor; with an Appendix, containing Reflections on the Present State of England and France."

The error contained in this sermon determined me to publish my "Agrarian Justice." It is wrong to say God made rich and poor; He made only male and female, and He gave them the earth for their inheritance.

Instead of preaching to encourage one part of mankind in insolence . . . it would be better that priests employed their time to render the general condition of man less miserable than it is. Practical religion consists in doing good: and the only way of serving God is that of endeavoring to make His creation happy. All preaching that has not this, for its object is nonsense and hypocrisy.

Thomas Paine




Agrarian Justice

To preserve the benefits of what is called civilized life, and to remedy at the same time the evil which it has produced, ought to considered as one of the first objects of reformed legislation.

Whether that state that is proudly, perhaps erroneously, called civilization, has most promoted or most injured the general happiness of man is a question that may be strongly contested. On one side, the spectator is dazzled by splendid appearances; on the other, he is shocked by extremes of wretchedness; both of which it has erected. The most affluent and the most miserable of the human race are to be found in the countries that are called civilized.

To understand what the state of society ought to be, it is necessary to have some idea of the natural and primitive state of man; such as it is at this day among the Indians of North America. There is not, in that state, any of those spectacles of human misery which poverty and want present to our eyes in all the towns and streets in Europe.

Poverty, therefore, is a thing created by that which is called civilized life. It exists not in the natural state. On the other hand, the natural state is without those advantages which flow from agriculture, arts, science and manufactures.

The life of an Indian is a continual holiday, compared with the poor of Europe; and, on the other hand it appears to be abject when compared to the rich. Civilization, therefore, or that which is so-called, has operated two ways: to make one part of society more affluent, and the other more wretched, than would have been the lot of either in a natural state.

It is always possible to go from the natural to the civilized state, but it is never possible to go from the civilized to the natural state. The reason is that man in a natural state, subsisting by hunting, requires ten times the quantity of land to range over to procure himself sustenance, than would support him in a civilized state, where the earth is cultivated.

When, therefore, a country becomes populous by the additional aids of cultivation, art and science, there is a necessity of preserving things in that state; because without it there cannot be sustenance for more, perhaps, than a tenth part of its inhabitants. The thing, therefore, now to be done is to remedy the evils and preserve the benefits that have arisen to society by passing from the natural to that which is called the civilized state.

In taking the matter upon this ground, the first principle of civilization ought to have been, and ought still to be, that the condition of every person born into the world, after a state of civilization commences, ought not to be worse than if he had been born before that period.

But the fact is that the condition of millions, in every country in Europe, is far worse than if they had been born before civilization begin, had been born among the Indians of North America at the present. I will show how this fact has happened.

It is a position not to be controverted that the earth, in its natural, cultivated state was, and ever would have continued to be, the common property of the human race. In that state every man would have been born to property. He would have been a joint life proprietor with rest in the property of the soil, and in all its natural productions, vegetable and animal.

But the earth in its natural state, as before said, is capable of supporting but a small number of inhabitants compared with what it is capable of doing in a cultivated state. And as it is impossible to separate the improvement made by cultivation from the earth itself, upon which that improvement is made, the idea of landed property arose from that parable connection; but it is nevertheless true, that it is the value of the improvement, only, and not the earth itself, that is individual property.

Every proprietor, therefore, of cultivated lands, owes to the community a ground-rent (for I know of no better term to express the idea) for the land which he holds; and it is from this ground-rent that the fund proposed in this plan is to issue.

It is deducible, as well from the nature of the thing as from all the stories transmitted to us, that the idea of landed property commenced with cultivation, and that there was no such thing, as landed property before that time. It could not exist in the first state of man, that of hunters. It did not exist in the second state, that of shepherds: neither Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, nor Job, so far as the history of the Bible may credited in probable things, were owners of land.

Their property consisted, as is always enumerated in flocks and herds, they traveled with them from place to place. The frequent contentions at that time about the use of a well in the dry country of Arabia, where those people lived, also show that there was no landed property. It was not admitted that land could be claimed as property.

There could be no such thing as landed property originally. Man did not make the earth, and, though he had a natural right to occupy it, he had no right to locate as his property in perpetuity any part of it; neither did the Creator of the earth open a land-office, from whence the first title-deeds should issue. Whence then, arose the idea of landed property? I answer as before, that when cultivation began the idea of landed property began with it, from the impossibility of separating the improvement made by cultivation from the earth itself, upon which that improvement was made.

The value of the improvement so far exceeded the value of the natural earth, at that time, as to absorb it; till, in the end, the common right of all became confounded into the cultivated right of the individual. But there are, nevertheless, distinct species of rights, and will continue to be, so long as the earth endures.

It is only by tracing things to their origin that we can gain rightful ideas of them, and it is by gaining such ideas that we, discover the boundary that divides right from wrong, and teaches every man to know his own. I have entitled this tract "Agrarian Justice" to distinguish it from "Agrarian Law."

Nothing could be more unjust than agrarian law in a country improved by cultivation; for though every man, as an inhabitant of the earth, is a joint proprietor of it in its natural state, it does not follow that he is a joint proprietor of cultivated earth. The additional value made by cultivation, after the system was admitted, became the property of those who did it, or who inherited it from them, or who purchased it. It had originally no owner. While, therefore, I advocate the right, and interest myself in the hard case of all those who have been thrown out of their natural inheritance by the introduction of the system of landed property, I equally defend the right of the possessor to the part which is his.

Cultivation is at least one of the greatest natural improvements ever made by human invention. It has given to created earth a tenfold value. But the landed monopoly that began with it has produced the greatest evil. It has dispossessed more than half the inhabitants of every nation of their natural inheritance, without providing for them, as ought to have been done, an indemnification for that loss, and has thereby created a species of poverty and wretchedness that did not exist before.

In advocating the case of the persons thus dispossessed, it is a right, and not a charity, that I am pleading for. But it is that kind of right which, being neglected at first, could not be brought forward afterwards till heaven had opened the way by a revolution in the system of government. Let us then do honor to revolutions by justice, and give currency to their principles by blessings.

Having thus in a few words, opened the merits of the case, I shall now proceed to the plan I have to propose, which is,

To create a national fund, out of which there shall be paid to every person, when arrived at the age of twenty-one years, the sum of fifteen pounds sterling, as a compensation in part, for the loss of his or her natural inheritance, by the introduction of the system of landed property:

And also, the sum of ten pounds per annum, during life, to every person now living, of the age of fifty years, and to all others as they shall arrive at that age.


MEANS BY WHICH THE FUND IS TO BE CREATED

I have already established the principle, namely, that the earth, in its natural uncultivated state was, and ever would have continued to be, the common property of the human race; that in that state, every person would have been born to property; and that the system of landed property, by its inseparable connection with cultivation, and with what is called civilized life, has absorbed the property of all those whom it dispossessed, without providing, as ought to have been done, an indemnification for that loss.

The fault, however, is not in the present possessors. No complaint is tended, or ought to be alleged against them, unless they adopt the crime by opposing justice. The fault is in the system, and it has stolen perceptibly upon the world, aided afterwards by the agrarian law of the sword. But the fault can be made to reform itself by successive generations; and without diminishing or deranging the property of any of present possessors, the operation of the fund can yet commence, and in full activity, the first year of its establishment, or soon after, as I shall show.

It is proposed that the payments, as already stated, be made to every person, rich or poor. It is best to make it so, to prevent invidious distinctions. It is also right it should be so, because it is in lieu of the natural inheritance, which, as a right, belongs to every man, over and above property he may have created, or inherited from those who did. Such persons as do not choose to receive it can throw it into the common fund.

Taking it then for granted that no person ought to be in a worse condition when born under what is called a state of civilization, than he would have been had he been born in a state of nature, and that civilization ought to have made, and ought still to make, provision for that purpose, it can only be done by subtracting from property a portion equal in value to the natural inheritance it has absorbed.

Various methods may be proposed for this purpose, but that which appears to be the best (not only because it will operate without deranging any present possessors, or without interfering with the collection of taxes or emprunts necessary for the purposes of government and the Revolution, but because it will be the least troublesome and the most effectual, and also because the subtraction will be made at a time that best admits it) is at the moment that property is passing by the death of one person to the possession of another. In this case, the bequeather gives nothing: the receiver pays nothing. The only matter to him is that the monopoly of natural inheritance, to which there never was a right, begins to cease in his person. A generous man would not wish it to continue, and a just man will rejoice to see it abolished.

My state of health prevents my making sufficient inquiries with respect to the doctrine of probabilities, whereon to found calculations with such degrees of certainty as they are capable of. What, therefore, I offer on this head is more the result of observation and reflection than of received information; but I believe it will be found to agree sufficiently with fact. In the first place, taking twenty-one years as the epoch of maturity, all the property of a nation, real and personal, is always in the possession of persons above that age. It is then necessary to know, as a datum of calculation, the average of years which persons above that age will live. I take this average to be about thirty years, for though many persons will live forty, fifty, or sixty years, after the age of twenty-one years, others will die much sooner, and some in every year of that time.

Taking, then, thirty years as the average of time, it will give, without any material variation one way or other, the average of time in which the whole property or capital of a nation, or a sum equal thereto, will have passed through one entire revolution in descent, that is, will have gone by deaths to new possessors; for though, in many instances, some parts of this capital will remain forty, fifty, or sixty years in the possession of one person, other parts will have revolved two or three times before those thirty years expire, which will bring it to that average; for were one-half the capital of a nation to revolve twice in thirty years, it would produce the same fund as if the whole revolved once.

Taking, then, thirty years as the average of time in which the whole capital of a nation, or a -sum equal thereto, will revolve once, the thirtieth part thereof will be the sum that will revolve every year, that is, will go by deaths to new possessors; and this last sum being thus known, and the ratio per cent to be subtracted from It determined, it will give the annual amount or income of the proposed fund, to be applied as already mentioned.

In looking over the discourse of the English Minister, Pitt, in his opening of what is called in England the budget (the scheme of finance for the year 1796), I find an estimate of the national capital of that unity. As this estimate of a national capital is prepared ready to my hand, I take it as a datum to act upon. When a calculation is made upon the known capital of any nation, combined with its population, it will serve as a scale for any other nation, in proportion as its capital and population be more or less.

I am the more disposed to take this estimate of Mr. Pitt, for the purpose of showing to that minister, upon his own calculation, how much better money may be employed than in wasting it, as he has done, on the wild project of setting up Bourbon kings. What, in the name of heaven, re Bourbon kings to the people of England? It is better that the people have bread.

Mr. Pitt states the national capital of England, real and personal, to one thousand three hundred millions sterling, which is about one-fourth part of the national capital of France, including Belgia. The event of the last harvest in each country proves that the soil of France more productive than that of England, and that it can better support twenty-four or twenty-five millions of inhabitants than that of England n seven or seven and a half millions.

The thirtieth part of this capital of £ 1,300,000,000 is £ 43,333,333 which the part that will revolve every year by deaths in that country to new possessors; and the sum that will annually revolve in France in the proportion of four to one, will be about one hundred and seventy-three millions sterling. From this sum of £ 43,333,333 annually revolving, is be subtracted the value of the natural inheritance absorbed in it, which, perhaps, in fair justice, cannot be taken at less, and ought not be taken for more, than a tenth part.

It will always happen that of the property thus revolving by deaths every year a part will descend in a direct line to sons and daughters, and other part collaterally, and the proportion will be found to be about three to one; that is, about thirty millions of the above sum will descend to direct heirs, and the remaining sum of £ 413,333,333 to more distant relations, and in part to strangers.

Considering, then, that man is always related to society, that relationship will become comparatively greater in proportion as the next of kin is more distant; it is therefore consistent with civilization to say that where there are no direct heirs society shall be heir to a part over and above the tenth part due to society.

If this additional part be from five to ten or twelve per cent, in proportion as the next of kin be nearer or more remote, so as to average with the escheats that may fall, which ought always to go to society and not to the government (an addition of ten per cent more), the produce from the annual sum of £ 43,333,333 will be:




From £ 30,000,000 at ten per cent £ 3,000,000
From £ 13,333,333 at ten per cent with the addition of ten per cent more £ 2,666,666
£ 43,333,333
   £ 5,666,666
 

Having thus arrived at the annual amount of the proposed fund, I come, in the next place, to speak of the population proportioned to this fund and to compare it with the uses to which the fund is to be applied.

The population (I mean that of England) does not exceed seven millions and a half, and the number of persons above the age of fifty will in that case be about four hundred thousand. There would not, however, be more than that number that would accept the proposed ten pounds sterling per annum, though they would be entitled to it. I have no idea it would be accepted by many persons who had a yearly income of two or three hundred pounds sterling. But as we often see instances of rich people falling into sudden poverty, even at the age of sixty, they would always have the right of drawing all the arrears clue to them. Four millions, therefore, of the above annual sum of £ 5,666,666 will be required for four hundred thousand aged persons, at ten pounds sterling each.

I come now to speak of the persons annually arriving at twenty-one years of age. If all the persons who died were above the age of twenty-one years, the number of persons annually arriving at that age must be equal to the annual number of deaths, to keep the population stationary. But the greater part die under the age of twenty-one, and therefore the number of persons annually arriving at twenty-ope will be less than half the number of deaths.

The whole number of deaths upon a population of seven millions and an half will be about 220,000 annually. The number arriving at twenty-one years of age will be about 100,000. The whole number of these will not receive the proposed fifteen pounds, for the reasons already mentioned, though, as in the former case, they would be entitled to it. Admitting then that a tenth part declined receiving it, the amount would stand thus:




Fund annually   £5,666,666
      
To 400,000 aged persons at £10 each  
 £4,000,000   
To 90,000 persons of 21 yrs.,£15 ster. each
 £1,350,000   
    £5,350,000
      
Remains   £ 316,666


There are, in every country, a number of blind and lame persons totally incapable of earning a livelihood. But as it will always happen that the greater number of blind persons will be among those who are above the age of fifty years, they will be provided for in that class. Th remaining sum of £ 316,666 will provide for the lame and blind under that age, at the same rate of £ 10 annually for each person.

Having now gone through all the necessary calculations, and stated the particulars of the plan, I shall conclude with some observations.

It is not charity but a right, not bounty but justice, that I am pleading for. The present state of civilization is as odious as it is unjust. It is absolutely the opposite of what it should be, and it is necessary that a revolution should be made in it. The contrast of affluence and wretchedness continually meeting and offending the eye, is like dead and living bodies chained together. Though I care as little about riches as any man, I am a friend to riches because they are capable of good.

I care not how affluent some may be, provided that none be miserable in consequence of it. But it is impossible to enjoy affluence with the felicity it is capable of being enjoyed, while so much misery is mingled in the scene. The sight of the misery, and the unpleasant sensations it suggests, which, though they may be suffocated cannot be extinguished, are a greater drawback upon the felicity of affluence than the proposed ten per cent upon property is worth. He that would not give the one to get rid of the other has no charity, even for himself.

There are, in every country, some magnificent charities established by individuals. It is, however, but little that any individual can do, when the whole extent of the misery to be relieved is considered. He may satisfy his conscience, but not his heart. He may give all that he has, and that all will relieve but little. It is only by organizing civilization upon such principles as to act like a system of pulleys, that the whole weight of misery can be removed.

The plan here proposed will reach the whole. It will immediately relieve and take out of view three classes of wretchedness-the blind, the lame, and the aged poor; and it will furnish the rising generation with means to prevent their becoming poor; and it will do this without deranging or interfering with any national measures.

To show that this will be the case, it is sufficient to observe that the operation and effect of the plan will, in all cases, be the same as if every individual were voluntarily to make his will and dispose of his property in the manner here proposed.

But it is justice, and not charity, that is the principle of the plan. In all great cases it is necessary to have a principle more universally active than charity; and, with respect to justice, it ought not to be left to the choice of detached individuals whether they will do justice or not. Considering, then, the plan on the ground of justice, it ought to be the act of the whole growing spontaneously out of the principles of the revolution, and the reputation of it ought to be national and not individual.

A plan upon this principle would benefit the revolution by the energy that springs from the consciousness of justice. It would multiply also the national resources; for property, like vegetation, increases by offsets. When a young couple begin the world, the difference is exceedingly great whether they begin with nothing or with fifteen pounds apiece. With this aid they could buy a cow, and implements to cultivate a few acres of land; and instead of becoming burdens upon society, which is always the case where children are produced faster than they can be fed, would be put in the way of becoming useful and profitable citizens. The national domains also would sell the better if pecuniary aids were provided to cultivate them in small lots.

It is the practice of what has unjustly obtained the name of civilization (and the practice merits not to be called either charity or policy) to make some provision for persons becoming poor and wretched only at the time they become so. Would it not, even as a matter of economy, be far better to adopt means to prevent their becoming poor? This can best be done by making every person when arrived at the age of twenty-one years an inheritor of something to begin with.

The rugged face of society, checkered with the extremes of affluence and want, proves that some extraordinary violence has been committed upon it, and calls on justice for redress. The great mass of the poor in countries are become an hereditary race, and it is next to impossible them to get out of that state of themselves. It ought also to be observed that this mass increases in all countries that are called civilized. re persons fall annually into it than get out of it.

Though in a plan of which justice and humanity are the foundation principles, interest ought not to be admitted into the calculation, yet it is always of advantage to the establishment of any plan to show that it beneficial as a matter of interest. The success of any proposed plan submitted to public consideration must finally depend on the numbers interested in supporting it, united with the justice of its principles.

The plan here proposed will benefit all, without injuring any. It will consolidate the interest of the republic with that of the individual. To the numerous class dispossessed of their natural inheritance by the system of landed property it will be an act of national justice. To persons dying possessed of moderate fortunes it will operate as a tontine to their children, more beneficial than the sum of money paid into the fund: and it will give to the accumulation of riches a degree of security that none of old governments of Europe, now tottering on their foundations, can give.

I do not suppose that more than one family in ten, in any of the countries of Europe, has, when the head of the family dies, a clear property of five hundred pounds sterling. To all such the plan is advantageous. That property would pay fifty pounds into the fund, and if there were only two children under age they would receive fifteen pounds each (thirty pounds), on coming of age, and be entitled to ten pounds a year after fifty.

It is from the overgrown acquisition of property that the fund will support itself; and I know that the possessors of such property in England, though they would eventually be benefitted by the protection of nine-tenths of it, will exclaim against the plan. But without entering any inquiry how they came by that property, let them recollect that they have been the advocates of this war, and that Mr. Pitt has already laid on more new taxes to be raised annually upon the people of England, and that for supporting the despotism of Austria and the Bourbons against the liberties of France, than would pay annually all the sums proposed in this plan.

I have made the calculations stated in this plan, upon what is called personal, as well as upon landed property. The reason for making it upon land is already explained; and the reason for taking personal property into the calculation is equally well founded though on a different principle. Land, as before said, is the free gift of the Creator in common to the human race. Personal property is the effect of society; and it is as impossible for an individual to acquire personal property without the aid of society, as it is for him to make land originally.

Separate an individual from society, and give him an island or a continent to possess, and he cannot acquire personal property. He cannot be rich. So inseparably are the means connected with the end, in all cases, that where the former do not exist the latter cannot be obtained. All accumulation, therefore, of personal property, beyond what a man's own hands produce, is derived to him by living in society; and he owes on every principle of justice, of gratitude, and of civilization, a part of that accumulation back again to society from whence the whole came.

This is putting the matter on a general principle, and perhaps it is best to do so; for if we examine the case minutely it will be found that the accumulation of personal property is, in many instances, the effect of paying too little for the labor that produced it; the consequence of which is that the working hand perishes in old age, and the employer abounds in affluence.

It is, perhaps, impossible to proportion exactly the price of labor to the profits it produces; and it will also be said, as an apology for the injustice, that were a workman to receive an increase of wages daily he would not save it against old age, nor be much better for it in the interim. Make, then, society the treasurer to guard it for him in a common fund; for it is no reason that, because he might not make a good use of it for himself, another should take it.

The state of civilization that has prevailed throughout Europe, is as unjust in its principle, as it is horrid in its effects; and it is the consciousness of this, and the apprehension that such a state cannot continue when once investigation begins in any country, that makes the possessors of property dread every idea of a revolution. It is the hazard and not the principle of revolutions that retards their progress. This being the case, it is necessary as well for the protection of property as for the sake of justice and humanity, to form a system that, while it preserves one part of society from wretchedness, shall secure the other from depreciation.

The superstitious awe, the enslaving reverence, that formerly Surrounded affluence, is passing away in all countries, and leaving the possessor of property to the convulsion of accidents. When wealth and splendor, instead of fascinating the multitude, excite emotions of disgust; n, instead of drawing forth admiration, it is beheld as an insult on wretchedness; when the ostentatious appearance it makes serves call the right of it in question, the case of property becomes critical, and it is only in a system of justice that the possessor can contemplate security.

To remove the danger, it is necessary to remove the antipathies, and this can only be done by making property productive of a national bless, extending to every individual. When the riches of one man above other shall increase the national fund in the same proportion; when it shall be seen that the prosperity of that fund depends on the prosperity of individuals; when the more riches a man acquires, the better it shall for the general mass; it is then that antipathies will cease, and property be placed on the permanent basis of national interest and protection.

I have no property in France to become subject to the plan I prose. What I have, which is not much, is in the United States of America. But I will pay one hundred pounds sterling toward this fund in France, the instant it shall be established; and I will pay the same sum England, whenever a similar establishment shall take place in that country.

A revolution in the state of civilization is the necessary companion of revolutions in the system of government. If a revolution in any country be from bad to good, or from good to bad, the state of what is called civilization in that country, must be made conformable thereto, to giveth at revolution effect.

Despotic government supports itself by abject civilization, in which debasement of the human mind, and wretchedness in the mass of the people, are the chief criterions. Such governments consider man merely as an animal; that the exercise of intellectual faculty is not his privilege; that he has nothing to do with the laws but to obey them; and they politically depend more upon breaking the spirit of the people by poverty, than they fear enraging it by desperation.

It is a revolution in the state of civilization that will give perfection to Revolution of France. Already the conviction that government by representation is the true system of government is spreading itself fast in the world. The reasonableness of it can be seen by all. The justness of it makes itself felt even by its opposers. But when a system of civilization, (growing out of that system of government) shall be so organized that not a man or woman born in the Republic but shall inherit some means of beginning the world, and see before them the certainty of escaping the miseries that under other governments accompany old age, the Revolution of France will have an advocate and an ally in the heart of all nations.

An army of principles will penetrate where an army of soldiers cannot; it will succeed where diplomatic management would fall: it is neither the Rhine, the Channel, nor the ocean that can arrest its progress: it will march on the horizon of the world, and it will conquer.



MEANS FOR CARRYING THE PROPOSED PLAN INTO EXECUTION, AND TO RENDER IT AT THE SAME TIME CONDUCIVE TO THE PUBLIC INTEREST

I. Each canton shall elect in its primary assemblies, three persons, as commissioners for that canton, who shall take cognizance, and keep a register of all matters happening in that canton, conformable to the charter that shall be established by law for carrying this plan into execution.

II. The law shall fix the manner in which the property of deceased persons shall be ascertained.

III. When the amount of the property of any deceased persons shall be ascertained, the principal heir to that property, or the eldest of the co-heirs, if of lawful age, or if under age, the person authorized by the ill of the deceased to represent him or them, shall give bond to the commissioners of the canton to pay the said tenth part thereof in four equal quarterly payments, within the space of one year or sooner, at the choice of the payers. One-half of the whole property shall remain as a security until the bond be paid off.

IV. The bond shall be registered in the office of the commissioners of the canton, and the original bonds shall be deposited in the national bank at Paris. The bank shall publish every quarter of a year the amount of the bonds in its possession, and also the bonds that shall have been paid off, or what parts thereof, since the last quarterly publication.

The national bank shall issue bank notes upon the security of the bonds in its possession. The notes so issued, shall be applied to pay the pensions of aged persons, and the compensations to persons arriving at twenty-one years of age. It is both reasonable and generous to suppose, that persons not under immediate necessity, will suspend their right of drawing on the fund, until it acquire, as it will do, a greater degree of ability. In this case, it is proposed, that an honorary register be kept, in each canton, of the names of the persons thus suspending that right, at least during the present war.

VI. As the inheritors of property must always take up their bonds in four quarterly payments, or sooner if they choose, there will always be numeraire arriving at the bank after the expiration of the first quarter, to exchange for the bank notes that shall be brought in.

VII. The bank notes being thus put in circulation, upon the best of all possible security, that of actual property, to more than four times the a mount of the bonds upon which the notes are issued, and with numeraire continually arriving at the bank to exchange or pay them off whenever they shall be presented for that purpose, they will acquire a permanent value in all parts of the Republic. They can therefore be received in payment of taxes, or emprunts equal to numeraire, because the Government can always receive numeraire for them at the bank.

VIII. It will be necessary that the payments of the ten per cent be made in numerairefor the first year from the establishment of the plan. But after the expiration of the first year, the inheritors of property may pay ten per cent either in bank notes issued upon the fund, or in numeraire.

If the payments be in numeraire, it will lie as a deposit at the bank, be exchanged for a quantity of notes equal to that amount; and if in notes issued upon the fund, it will cause a demand upon the fund equal thereto; and thus the operation of the plan will create means to carry itself into execution.

Thomas Paine

1792    EUROPE Popular uprising  in Paris . Monarchy overthrown  France September Massacres  1440  Popular courts in the French Revolution sentenced prisoners to death,  including around  240 priests. FRANCE. In August armed detachments marched on the Tuilleries. After a short fight withthe guards the people forced their way into the palace and arrested the King. The thousand-year old monarchy had fallen. Louis XVI was imprisoned in the Temple and his ministers were dismissed. The Provisional Executive Council, which was dominated by the Girondins, was set up.. New elections were announced in which all adult males had the rightto vote (regardless of property). The Feuillants were obliged to step down. The Girondins and Brissot, Roland, Vergniaud represented the commercial, industrial and land-owning bourgeoisie from the provinces. Once feudal absolutism was overthrown, they became a conservative force, and sought to check the revolutionary tide, quite content with what theyhad achieved.  The Jacobins, or Montagnards were a bloc made up of the petty bourgeoisie, the peasantry and the urban poor, the sections of the population whose demands had not been satisfied. They firmly resolved to advance the revolution until all their demands had been met.                            
             
        National Convention opened. France declared a Republic  FRANCE. The opening session of the Convention was held  after the Prussian defeat at the battle of Valmy, the first victory of revolutionary France over the counterrevolutionary coalition of European powers. 179-2 Was hailed as Year I of the Republic. Soon after, however, the struggle between the Jacobins and the Girondins made itself felt. The Jacobins felt that Louis should be executed, while the Girondins tried to save his life.

1792 TOM PAINE. Girondin. In summer of 1792, he answered the sedition and libel charges thus: "If, to expose the fraud and imposition of monarchy ... to promote universal peace, civilization, and commerce, and to break the chains of political superstition, and raise degraded man to his proper rank; if these things be libellous ... let the name of libeller be engraved on my tomb".Paine was an enthusiastic supporter of the French Revolution, and was granted, along with Alexander Hamilton, George Washington, Benjamin Franklin and others, honorary French citizenship. Despite his inability to speak French, he was elected to the National Convention, representing the district of Pas-de-Calais. He voted for the French Republic; but argued against the execution of Louis XVI, saying that he should instead be exiled to the United States: firstly, because of the way royalist France had come to the aid of the American Revolution; and secondly because of a moral objection to capital punishment in general and to revenge killings in particular. He participated to the Constitution Committee that drafted the Girondin constitutional project.Regarded as an ally of the Girondins, he was seen with increasing disfavour by the Montagnards who were now in power, and in particular by Robespierre. A decree was passed at the end of 1793 excluding foreigners from their places in the Convention (Anacharsis Cloots was also deprived of his place). Paine was arrested and imprisoned in December 1793.The Age of Reason
 Title page from the first English edition of Part IMain article: The Age of
ReasonBefore his arrest and imprisonment in France, knowing that he would probably be arrested and executed, Paine, following in the tradition of early
eighteenth-century British deism, wrote the first part of The Age of Reason, an assault on organized "revealed" religion combining a compilation of inconsistencies he found in the Bible with his own advocacy of deism, calling for "free rational inquiry" into all subjects, especially religion. The Age of Reason critique on institutionalized religion resulted in only a brief upsurge in deistic thought in America, but would later result in Paine being derided by the public and abandoned by his friends. In his "Autobiographical Interlude," which is found in The Age of Reason between the first and second parts, Paine writes, "Thus far I had written on the 28th of December, 1793. In the evening I went to the Hotel Philadelphia ... About four in the morning I was awakened by a rapping at my chamber door; when I opened it, I saw a guard and the master of the hotel with them. The guard told me they came to put me under arrestation and to demand the key of my papers. I desired them to walk in, and I would dress myself and go with them immediately."Being held in France, Paine protested and claimed that he was a citizen of America, which was an ally of Revolutionary France, rather than of Great Britain, which was by that time at war with France. However, Gouverneur Morris, the American ambassador to France, did not press his claim, and Paine later wrote that Morris had connived at his imprisonment. Paine thought that George Washington had abandoned him, and he was to quarrel with Washington for the rest of his life. Years later he wrote a scathing open letter to Washington, accusing him of private betrayal of their friendship and public hypocrisy as general and president, and concluding the letter by saying "the world will be puzzled to decide whether you are an apostate or an impostor; whether you have abandoned good principles or whether you ever had any."While in prison, Paine narrowly escaped execution. A guard walked through the prison placing a chalk mark on the doors of the prisoners who were due to be sent to the guillotine the next day. He placed a 4 on the door of Paine's cell, but Paine's door had been left open to let a breeze in, because Paine was seriously ill at the time. That night, his other three cell mates closed the door, thus hiding the mark inside the cell. The next day their cell was overlooked. "The Angel of Death" had passed over Paine. He kept his head and survived the few vital days needed to be spared by the fall of Robespierre on 9 Thermidor (July 27, 1794).

    1792     LA COMMUNE.sous la menace du danger extérieur et la crainte d'une trahison de Louis XVI, une commune insurrectionnelle dirigée par Jérôme Pétion, Pierre Louis Manuel et son substitut Georges Danton prit la place de la Commune légale. Formée par 52 commissaires désignés avec la participation des citoyens, elle défendit les idées des sans-culottes parisiens et devint un des organes principaux du gouvernement imposant son pouvoir en province.La Commune insurrectionnelle de Paris contribua à la création du Tribunal révolutionnaire (17 août 179-2), destiné à juger les suspects, resta passive face aux Massacres de septembre 179-2, imposa la proscription des Girondins (2 juin  

1792- Ludwig van Beethoven
"Musical Genius"
(1770 - 1827)
Early Years
Born in Bonn, of Flemish ancestry, Ludwig's childhood was made miserable by a father determined to turn him into an infant prodigy, in the mold of the distinguished Mozart.  In fact, the father's yearning to see his son succeed as a child was so intense that he had Ludwig's birth records post-dated to 1772.  Preferring drink over work, the elder Beethoven saw the boy's four-year-old talent as a way to earn money to lift the family out of its impoverished conditions.  Ludwig did his exercises frequently in tears, under the iron hand of his father and the beatings he imposed.  One day, when Ludwig's mother protested this cruelty, she too was beaten, upsetting the boy so much that he resolved to become great in order to buy his mother a better life.
Beethoven began composing early on, publishing some compositions at age twelve.  In 1787 he met and performed for Mozart in Vienna, who commented on the lad, "Keep your eyes on him.  Someday, he will give the world something to talk about."  Indeed, he was to become perhaps the greatest of all musical composers.
Returning to Bonn, Ludwig played viola in the city's orchestra, but composed without much promise.  In 1792, with French troops marching on Bonn, he was again sent to Vienna, residing there the remainder of his life.
Young Ludwig studied under Haydn, Albrechtsberger and Salieri.  These associations turned sour, however, due to Beethoven's radical ideas about his music.  He felt confined by the rules of composition set forth by his teachers, and sought to write with a freer, more modern interpretation.  Still, his talent and drive to succeed carried him even during the periods in which he felt shunned.  And, over time, he became immensely popular both as a piano virtuoso and teacher.  Soon, his compositions also became well-received.
Vienna's high society tolerated Beethoven despite his repulsive appearance (he was stocky, hairy, broad-handed, and his face was pock-marked) and his unruly manners (he laughed over-loudly, was arrogant and untidy). He frequently caused "unpleasant scenes" where he would excitedly call people cheats - or worse - in public. He was a stranger to rules of etiquette and never concerned himself about such things. As one of Beethoven's few students, Ferdinand Ries, explained:
Attempts were made to coerce Beethoven into behaving with the proper deference. This was, however, unbearable for him...   One day, finally, when he was again, as he termed it, being "sermonized on court manners," he very angrily pushed his way up to the Archduke and said quite frankly that though he had the greatest possible reverence for his person, a strict observance of all the regulations to which his attention was called every day was beyond him. The Archduke laughed good-naturedly about the incident and gave orders to let Beethoven go his own way in peace; he must be taken as he was.
Ries went on to describe his mentor's personal habits, which were quite the opposite of what one would expect from a master musician:
Beethoven was most awkward and bungling in his behavior; his clumsy movements lacked all grace. He rarely picked up anything without dropping or breaking it...   Everything was knocked over, soiled, or destroyed. How he ever managed to shave himself at all remains difficult to understand, even considering the frequent cuts on his cheeks...   He never learned to dance in time with the music.
Growing Musical Brilliance
Beethoven's music, more than any composer, was characterized by his moods.  Three periods seem to define his life, and thus his musical creations:
First Period (1792-1802):  The composer's initial musical style didn't differ markedly from that of Haydn's or Mozart's.  A traditional flavor dominated his first two symphonies, which included Sonata in C Minor and "Pathetique" and "Moonlight" Sonatas.
In his late-twenties, just as his reputation was climbing, Beethoven's first signs of deafness appeared.  This crisis deeply disturbed the young man, who actually contemplated taking his life, though in a letter to his brother he bravely prescribed for himself  "patience and determination."
Second Period (1802-1812):  Beethoven's growing depression caused him to withdraw socially - and his musical style became dramatically altered as well.  Though he never married, he had several romantic affairs with female pupils during these years, and the romantic, emotional notes harbored deep inside of him flowed out.  He produced a prolific output of compositions within this ten-year time frame.
Despite the fact that he paid little attention to what was fashionable with the audiences of the day, Beethoven's music increased in popularity.  His lengthy Third Symphony, the "Eroica" (originally  dedicated to Napoleon, but recanted by an angry Beethoven when Napoleon crowned himself as France's sovereign), the dazzling "Kreutzer" Sonata, the celebrated Fourth and Fifth Symphonies, the Violin Concerto, the overture "Lenore," followed by the quiet Sixth Symphony, all had an originality previously unseen.  A number of songs, his first five quartets, and the brief, lilting Seventh and Eighth Symphonies closed out these impassioned years.
At this point, Beethoven was beset by health and business worries.  Quarrels with some of his friends and contractual disappointments caused him much grief.  Additionally, Beethoven was given custody of a nephew who brought the doting and eccentric uncle great sadness during the rest of his life.
Final Period (1817-1827): As the years passed, Beethoven became totally deaf.  His compositions became both fewer and more difficult to understand, and critics often spoke unkindly of his works.  Beethoven was said to have defended his latter masterpieces with the futurist's view.  "They are not for you, but for a later age," he dictated in a letter.
Found within his last symphonies is Beethoven's masterpiece, the choral finale "Ode to Joy."  Its last four quartets stand as Beethoven's supreme achievement.
"Ode to Joy's" final quartet was written in October of 1826, while the composer was housed at his cruel brother's farm.  Prohibited from having a warming fire in his room, Beethoven developed a severe chill.  Then, the journey back to Vienna in an open buggy dealt him his death-blow.  But his final months were at last filled with confidence and contentment.  As he himself proclaimed, he had "endured beyond grief"; he was now "above the battle."
Beethoven died of pneumonia in March of 1827.  All of Vienna turned out to mourn his passing.

Beethoven was by far the premier musical innovator of his age.  Mozart and Bach were traditional perfectionists of musical form and elegance, and truly great composers.  But Beethoven was original, bending music to his own will.  He made lasting changes in style: he enlarged the introduction and the coda; he extended the length and scope of the symphony; he introduced episodes; he multiplied key-relations within movements; he introduced the chorus for use in the symphony's finale; he invented "song-cycles" (sequences of songs connected in subject); he redefined the variation; he initiated modern "program-music"; and he was the driving force in achieving independence of musicians and composers from the control of either church or court.  Two of his most important contributions included expanding the size of the orchestra and establishing the piano as the foremost symphony instrument.
Beethoven's works marked the transition from the classical to the romantic style of music and, more than any other musician before or since, inspired divergence from orthodox form among composers who followed after him.  Among those who borrowed from his style and employed his freeing philosophies were Brahms, Wagner, Schubert, Tchaikovsky, Mahler and Strauss.
Beethoven's paradoxical loss of hearing drove him to frequent and deep melancholy.  But unlike many afflicted persons, who might have given up, he continued to compose, and during his years of deafness produced his greatest masterpieces.  Overall, he yielded nine symphonies, five piano concertos, thirty-two piano sonatas, sixteen magnificent string quartets, an opera, a mass, a ballet and some seventy songs and theatre arrangements.  More important than his mere quantity of writings, Beethoven transformed instrumental music into a quality and sensitive art form. Though far from an ideal, dignified individual, Beethoven left us gifts of music and profound creativity in musical theory, plus an influence that will likely be felt for centuries to come.
Three years before his death, Beethoven conducted the first performance of his Ninth Symphony.  When the "Ode to Joy" concluded, the soloist from the violin section took him by the arm and turned him around so he could see the wildly clapping audience.  Clearly, his works were appreciated by his own generation, as well as by us in this later age.


     1792DEUTSCHLAND.bis Sommer durfte Goethe mit Christiane Vulpius das Haus nicht bewohnen. Erst vom Sommer an war die Familie wieder im Haus am Frauenplan, das der Herzog Goethe 1794 mündlich schenkte, aber erst 1807 übereignete. Hier lebte Goethe bis zu seinem Tod; hier entstanden gleichfalls zahlreiche Werke.RegierungsarbeitCarl August spannte ihn in die Regierungsarbeit ein; in den folgenden Jahren übernahm er verschiedene Ämter: Leitung der Kriegskommission, Direktor des Wegebaus, Leiter der Finanzverwaltung, zeitweise auch Kultusfragen. Faktisch war er Leiter des Kabinetts (Ministerpräsident).Das Land lernte er auf vielen Wanderungen und Ausritten zu Pferde kennen. Dazwischen (1777) flüchtete er für zwei Monate in den Harz. Im Mai 1778 unternahm er eine Reise mit Herzog Carl-August über Leipzig und Wörlitz nach Berlin und Potsdam. Im Amt Ilmenau stöberte er einen alten Bergbau auf und träumte von Silberschätzen, mit denen man die Finanznot beheben könnte. Am 24. Februar 1784 erfolgte die feierliche Eröffnung des Bergbaues, bei der Goethe eine Rede hielt. Die Bergbaupläne versackten jedoch bald in alten Rechtsansprüchen und Wassereinbrüchen (der letzte Schacht wurde 1812 stillgelegt), hinterließen aber ihre Spuren im Werk (vgl. Faust, zweiter Teil).DEUTSCHLAND.erhielter ein Assessor-Patent und
    wurde wenig später mit der Untersuchung des gerade zu Preußen gekommenen fränkischen Bergbaus betraut. Auf seinem Weg dorthin inspizierte er den Kamsdorf-Könitzer Bergbau und revolutionierte die Abbauverfahren von Alaunschiefergestein im Schmiedefelder Vitriolwerk am Schwefelloch (das heutige Schaubergwerk Morassina). Aufgrund seines beispielhaft erhellenden Berichtes erfolgte bereits nach einem halben Dienstjahr die Beförderung zum Oberbergmeister mit dem Auftrag der Sanierung des Bergbaues im Fichtelgebirge und Frankenwald. Binnen kurzem gelang es ihm, die jährlichen Erträge um ein Vielfaches zu steigern – nicht zum Schaden der Bergarbeiter, im Gegenteil: Auf der Basis seiner chemischen Analysen der Grubenwetter entwickelte er einen Vorläufer der Gasmaske für die Bergleute. Aus eigenen Mitteln gründete er ohne Rücksprache mit den vorgesetzten Behörden eine Bergschule in Steben, die erste Arbeiter-Berufsschule in Deutschland, offen für die Altersstufen von 12 bis 30 Jahren. Gelehrt wurden nach der Schicht und bis 23 Uhr u. a. Mineralienkunde, bergmännisches Rechnen und Bergrecht, Maschinen- und Kompasskunde. Die Lehrbücher dafür schrieb Humboldt selber.Bei der Erprobung einer von ihm entwickelten verbesserten Grubenlampe im Selbstversuch fiel er wegen giftiger Grubengase in Ohnmacht, die Lampe aber hielt durch und half, ihn zu retten. Auch seine parallel zur Diensttätigkeit fortgeführten wissenschaftlichen Experimente führte er bei Bedarf als Selbstversuche durch. So machte er auf der – letztlich vergeblichen – Suche nach einer besonderen „Lebenskraft" (in diesen Zusammenhang gehört auch seine philosophische Allegorie „Die Lebenskraft, oder der rhodische Genius", 1795 für Friedrich Schillers Zeitschrift „Die Horen" verfasst) zahlreiche galvanische Experimente für seine Studie „Versuche über die gereizte Muskel- und Nervenfaser", bei denen er künstlich erzeugte Wunden auf seinem Rücken mit Metallen wie Zink und Silber in Berührung brachte. Sein Wissensdrang war ebenso universell wie unermüdlich; für Forschung, Aufzeichnungen und Korrespondenz machte er die Nacht zum Tage und schlief selten länger als vier Stunden.Während seiner Tätigkeit im Staatsdienst kam er in Kontakt mit gleichfalls in der Bergverwaltung hochrangig beschäftigten und bei den späteren preußischen Reformen führenden Persönlichkeiten, dem Freiherrn vom Stein und Hardenberg, die seine Fähigkeiten ebenso erkannten und für ihre Zwecke dienstbar zu machen suchten wie sein Ressortminister von Heinitz, der ihn 1794 zum Bergrat und 1795 zum Oberbergrat befördert hat, auf die höchstmögliche Position unterhalb des Ministeriums. Doch weder dies noch ungewöhnliche Gehalts- und Freistellungsangebote vermochten Humboldt im Amt zu halten.„Jeder Mann hat die Pflicht, in seinem Leben den Platz zu suchen, von dem aus er seiner Generation am besten dienen kann", heißt es in einem Schreiben Humboldts an den französischen Astronomen Delambre. Sobald Alexander von Humboldt durch den Tod der Mutter 1796 zum vermögenden Erben geworden war, schied er aus dem Staatsdienst aus, um sich als Naturforscher und Wissenschaftler ganz und gar unabhängig zu machen. Als Ziel schwebte ihm eine „physique du monde" vor, eine Darstellung des gesamten physisch-geographischen Wissens der Zeit, zu dem er auf Forschungsreisen selber entscheidend beitragen wollte. Bereits am Jahresende 1796 entwickelte er brieflich seine trotz mancher Widrigkeiten, mehrfacher Anläufe und Umwege konsequent verfolgten Pläne: „Meine Reise ist unerschütterlich gewiß. Ich präpariere mich noch einige Jahre und sammle Instrumente, ein bis anderthalb Jahr bleibe ich in Italien, um mich mit Vulkanen genau bekannt zu machen, dann geht es über Paris nach England, wo ich leicht auch wieder ein Jahr bleiben könnte (…), und dann mitenglischen Schiffen nach Westindien." Das umfasste im damaligen Verständnis den ganzen Raum von Mexiko bis zum Amazonas.Schon durch Campe war Alexander die Faszination der Welt in Übersee vermittelt worden. Johann Gottfried von Herder hatte auf die kontrastierend miteinander verbundenen Naturräume der Anden und des Amazonasbeckens hingewiesen und zu deren Erforschung aufgerufen, indem u. a. die Höhe der (damals als höchste der Welt geltenden) Berge ermittelt, die Bodenbeschaffenheit bestimmt sowie die örtlichen Abweichungen der Magnetnadel und die je lokalen Temperaturen gemessen werden sollten – alles Bestandteile des dann von Humboldt noch ausgeweiteten Forschungsprogramms. In den Jahren der Vorbereitung nutzte er jede Möglichkeit zu systematischer Ausweitung und Vertiefung seiner Kenntnisse nicht nur durch das Studium der einschlägigen Reiseberichte und neuesten Forschungsergebnisse, sondern auch durch persönlichen Kontakt mit den führenden Zoologen, Botanikern und Astronomen der Zeit sowie durch ständige praktische Erprobung von Messinstrumenten in den verschiedenen Landschaften und Naturräumen, so z. B. in den Alpen. Zudem entwickelte er ein spezifisches Aufzeichnungsverfahren zur Erfassung seiner jeweiligen Forschungsergebnisse, die „Pasigraphie", eine Schriftzeichensprache, die die geographischen Erscheinungen durch Buchstaben, Richtungspfeile, Symbole und Abkürzungen für Formationen und Gesteine festhielt.Im Mai 179-8 begab sich Alexander von Humboldt in die seinerzeitige Weltwissenschaftsmetropole Paris, wo er in Vorträgen und Debatten sein bereits beachtliches Renommee als Wissenschaftler festigte und seine Ausstattung mit Messinstrumenten vervollständigte. Hier fand er schließlich auch in dem Botaniker Aimé Bonpland jenen fachkundigen Reisegefährten, dessen Mitarbeit ihm die Durchführung seiner komplexen Forschungsvorhaben erst ermöglichen sollte.DEUTSCHLAND.: „Da Ihre Beobachtungen vom Element, die meinigen aber von der Gestalt ausgehen, so können wir nicht genug eilen, uns in der Mitte zu begegnen." Diesen Impuls hat der 20 Jahre Jüngere aufgenommen und im „Kosmos" schließlich glänzend zur Geltung gebracht: „Die Natur ist für die denkende Betrachtung Einheit in der Vielheit, Verbindung des Mannigfaltigen in Form und Mischung, Inbegriff der Naturdinge und Naturkräfte, als ein lebendiges Ganze. Das wichtigste Resultat des sinnigen physischen Forschens ist daher dieses: in der Mannigfaltigkeit die Einheit zu erkennen, von dem Individuellen alles zu umfassen, was die Entdeckungen der letzteren Zeitalter uns darbieten, die Einzelheiten prüfend zu sondern und doch nicht ihrer Masse zu unterliegen, der erhabenen Bestimmung des Menschen eingedenk, den Geist der Natur zu ergreifen, welcher unter der Decke der Erscheinungen verhüllt liegt. Auf diesem Wege reicht unser Bestreben über die enge Sinnenwelt hinaus, und es kann uns gelingen, die Natur begreifend, den rohen Stoff empirischer Anschauung gleichsam durch Ideen zu beherrschen." Die wissenschaftliche Naturforschung wird hier zusammengeführt mit dem Denken Goethes und des Bruders Wilhelm. Zugleich wird der Vorstellungshorizont der deutschen Klassik auf ein empirisches Fundament verwiesen: „Aus unvollständigen Beobachtungen und noch unvollständigeren Inductionen entstehen irrige Ansichten von dem Wesen der Naturkräfte, Ansichten, die, durch bedeutsame Sprachformen gleichsam verkörpert und erstarrt, sich, wie ein Gemeingut der Phantasie, durch alle Klassen der Nation verbreiten. Neben der wissenschaftlichen Physik bildet sich dann eine andere, ein System ungeprüfter, zum Theil gänzlich mißverstandener Erfahrungskenntnisse. Wenige Einzelheiten umfassend ist diese Art der Empirik um so anmaßender, als sie keine der Thatsachen kennt, von denen sie erschüttert wird. Sie ist in sich abgeschlossen, unveränderlich in ihren Axiomen, anmaßend wie alles Beschränkte; während die wissenschaftliche Naturkunde, untersuchend und darum zweifelnd, das fest Ergründete von dem bloß Wahrscheinlichen trennt, und sich täglich durch Erweiterung und Berichtigung ihrer Ansichten vervollkommnet."Damit sind die methodischen Grundpfeiler des Humboldtschen Forscherlebens wie seines Spätwerkes Kosmos erfasst, das mit einer damaligen Gesamtauflage von 87.000 Exemplaren auch als Bestseller Epoche machte. Der 5. Band, an dem Humboldt bis in die letzten Lebenswochen gearbeitet hat, blieb ebenso unvollendet wie die Beschreibung der amerikanischen Reise („Reise in die Aequinoctial-Gegenden des neuen Continents") , die er nur hinsichtlich des ersten Abschnitts ausgeführt hat. Mitunter hat man das nicht nur bedauert, sondern ihm angekreidet, übergeordnete Gesichtspunkte Humboldts dabei aber außer Acht gelassen: Das „Kosmos"-Projekt war früh und blieb immer das angestrebte Ziel und die ausstehende Summe aller seiner Forschungsaktivitäten und wissenschaftlichen Kontakte. Manches musste er dafür liegen lassen oder abbrechen, vieles anderen übertragen. Dass er mit dem „Kosmos" jenseits der beiden ersten Bände, die bereits den Umriss des Ganzen enthielten, nicht fertig wurde, hat die innere Logik für sich, dass der Autor sich der prinzipiellen Unabschließbarkeit wissenschaftlichen Erkenntniszuwachses nur zu bewusst war.Nicht nur darin, sondern vor allem in Humboldts transdisziplinärem Wissenschaftsverständnis (Ottmar Ette) mit den entsprechenden praktischen Konsequenzen, liegt das bedeutende aktuelle Orientierungspotential, das von Alexander von Humboldt im Zeitalter eines beschleunigten Wandels der Ökonomie, der Ökosysteme und Gesellschaften sowie einer durchgreifenden Globalisierung ausgeht. Sein die Natur- und Geisteswissenschaften sowohl in ihren jeweiligen Forschungsmethoden respektierender als auch gezielt untereinander vernetzender Ansatz dürfte wohl am ehesten geeignet sein, wissenschaftlichem Arbeiten jene Problemlösungskompetenz und jenes öffentliche Gehör zu erschließen, ohne die es oft fruchtlos bleibt. Humboldts „Kosmos" erwuchs nicht zuletzt aus dem ständigen direkten und persönlichen Austausch über die Grenzen der Disziplinen hinweg und ermöglichte ihm die Einbeziehung spezialisierter Wissensbestände gerade auch solcher Fachrichtungen, deren Erkenntnisse ihm wichtig waren, obwohl er sie selbst nicht vertieft betreiben konnte. Manche Einsichten, zu denen Alexander von Humboldt in seinem Spätwerk gelangt ist, sind von geradezu dramatischer Aktualität: „Wissen und Erkennen sind die Freude und die Berechtigung der Menschheit; sie sind Theile des Nationalreichthums, oft ein Ersatz für die Güter, welche die Natur in allzu kärglichem Maaße ausgetheilt hat. Diejenigen Völker, welche an der allgemeinen industriellen Thätigkeit, in Anwendung der Mechanik und technischen Chemie, in sorgfältiger Auswahl und Bearbeitung natürlicher Stoffe zurückstehen, bei denen die Achtung einer solchen Thätigkeit nicht alle Classen durchdringt, werden unausbleiblich von ihrem Wohlstande herabsinken. Sie werden es um so mehr, wenn benachbarte Staaten, in denen Wissenschaft und industrielle Künste in regem Wechselverkehr mit einander stehen, wie in erneuerter Jugendkraft vorwärts schreiten."
 
1792-1807    Reforms of the Turkish Sultan Selim III    
                                          
    RUSSIA

    MIDEAST

    AFRICA

    ASIA

    SOUTH ASIA

    AUSTRALIA .
_____________________________________________________________

1793    UNITED STATES CANADA 1793. Sam Houston was born in Virginia, and moved to Tennessee where he lived with the Cherokee Indians for three years.  Under President Jackson he led the wars against the Creek.  He was rewarded with becoming the head of Bureau of Indian affairs. While Mexico was still under the dominion of Spain, the sale in Louisiana to the United States by Napoleon had further worried the Spanish crown, because instead of calming the land fever of the US, it increased it. Shamelessly, the US government tried to claim Texas as part of Louisiana, even though this had no basis in treaty.  In view of the rapacious expansionism of the Americans, the Spanish crown  in Europe decided to sell the Floridas for the sake of establishing a defined border between the two countries.  

1793    MEXICO

1793    CENTRAL AMERICA CARIBBEAN

1793    SOUTH AMERICA

1793    EUROPE  The revolt is against the excesses of the Catholic church. In Notre dame at the altar stands a prostitute hailed as the Goddess of Reason. Notre Dame is called the Temple of  Reason, a  repudiation of the Catholic church. Priests are commanded to abandon the Pope.  Churches are closed.  The Revolution nationalizes the wealth of  church lands. One tenth of all the land in France is confiscated to fund the Revolution.

    1793    LA COMMUNE.), la loi du maximum général (29 septembre 179-3), l'institution de la Terreur et participa au mouvement de déchristianisation. Titulaire des pouvoirs de police, elle nomma les policiers de Paris chargés d'incarcérer en masse les suspects. Dominée en 179-3 par le Comité de salut public dirigé par Robespierre, Saint-Just, et Couthon. La Commune insurrectionnelle de Paris perdit son influence après l'élimination des Hébertistes (24 mars 179-4), la Convention nationale supprima la Commune de Paris et décida de guillotiner 93 de ses membres.
    
     1793    Execution of Louis XVI   FRANCE. Louis is found guilty of treason and sentenced to death. In January he is sent to the guillotine. The horrified crowned heads of Europe joined the coalition against revolutionary France. The French popular army drove the interventionists out of their territory and into Belgium. In March General Dumouriez conspired with the Girondins to betray France and go over to the enemy camp. Once again the interventionists invaded  France  The long war, France's isolation and the disruption of the country's economy gave rise to an acute food shortage. The mounting tide of poverty forced the demand for a ceiling on prices and a clampdown on speculation. The interests of the urban poor were voiced by Jacques, Roux, Varlet, the sans culottes. The peasants came out into the open with grievances. The Girondins, busy fighting the Jacobins,  held themselves aloof from the people's plight. The Jacobins in hand with the sans culottes organized an armed revolt against the Girondins. Power was at last in the hands of the Jacobins. They come to power at a critical stage. The exhausted French forces are hard pressed by foreign powers. A counterrevolutionary loyalist revolt breaks out in Vendee. The Girondins escaping arrest organize a counterrevolutionary uprising. Paris is encircled by enemy armies closing in. The Jacobins under Robespierre stand fast and manage to solve many of the problems posed by the revolution. The main demands of the peasants are satisfied. The confiscated lands of the nobles are divided up and sold on the basis of ten-year credit. All feudal practices are abolished and the peasants are no longer obligated to perform free services for the nobles. Now the peasantry sides solidly with the Jacobin republic. They see themselves as defenders not only of revolutionary ideas, but of their own interests as well. The most democratic constitution France has ever known is drawn up. Nevertheless, the  mounting civil war, the murders and conspiracies are events that oblige the Jacobins to adopt a new path.                                                         
     France declares war on England                                                                           
    Popular uprising in Paris. Jacobins establish revolutionary dictatorship           
    The Terror                         
    Feudal rights and obligations abolished without compensation
    Convention adopts new French Constitution                                                   Assassination of Marat  
                     
        On July 13th, Marat is murdered. His assassin, Charlotte Corday is prompted by the Girondins. His death is a shattering blow to all Parisians. Three days later a Jacobin named Chalier is murdered, The Girondins have taken up terrorist tactics.  The Jacobins are obliged to answer terror with terror. The Comite of Public Safety now goes into action. Marie Antoinette is held for trial and sentenced to the guillotine. The property of the enemies of the Republic is confiscated. The Paris poor demand intensification of the terror against speculators, and agitate  for fixed prices and a minimum wage. Mass recruitment into the army  numbers one million strong. The counterrevolution has to be quelled and the army and the people have to be fed. A strong centralized revolutionary is required. It has to command popular support, express the people's will and make timely use of popular initiative and the creative revolutionary activity of the people. The Jacobins under the circumstances transform the democratic constitutional government into a revolutionary democratic dictatorship.
The commissaires of the Convention in the provinces are given wide powers. The Committee for Public Safety supervises the state administration, ranging from defense to food supplies and military equipment. It is headed by Robespierre (The Incorruptible), along with Couthon, and Carnot. The revolutionary government's source of strength lies in its centralization, but mainly in the support accorded it by the people. All the organs of the convention maintain direct constant contact with the people. Twelve members elected from among the most politically aware citizens in each rural commune form the revolutionary committees. This makes the wide participiation of the masses in the state structure and the formulation of policy a democratic reality. Political measures are subject for preliminary discussion at the Jacobin clubs throughout the country. At these meetings all members are equal; there were no ministers, commissaires or generals. The Republican armies are able to launch a new offensive. New commanders of humble origin are to prove outstanding. Former sergeant Lazare Gauche, entrusted with a whole army at the age of 25, inspires his men with tremendous will to victory. By the spring of 1794 the soldiers of the Republic have driven the interventionists (battle of Fleurs) beyond the borders of France.                                             

1793    RUSSIA

1793    MIDEAST

1793    SOUTH AFRICA. The first Commando of that year took 1,800 cattle and murdered the owners, another Commando took 2,000 cattle and murdered forty people, while the third and latest Commando under the 'Liberal' Maynier took no fewer than 10,000 cattle and also 180 women and children as prisoners for slave labour. The Advent of British Imperialism The Xhosa people laboured under numerous disadvantages in their clashes with the white expansionists. They were not a united people, but divided into many small chieftainships,disputes between whom could be and were taken advantage of by the invaders. Lacking firearms and horses, they fought on foot armed with assegai and shield against mounted gunmen. Yet they resisted and defended their independence and lands for over a hundred years The task was made infinitely more difficult after the establishment of British rule in the Cape     

    ASIA

    SOUTH ASIA

    AUSTRALIA .
    ____________________________________________________

      1794Jay Treaty[84]Attempts to settle post-Revolution disputes between the
      United States and the Kingdom of Great Britain.
      Treaty of CanandaiguaEstablishes peace and friendship between the United
      States and the Six Nations of the Iroquois (Haudenosaunee).


1794 UNITED STATES CANADA



    MEXICO

    CENTRAL AMERICA CARIBBEAN

1794    SOUTH AMERICA    NARINO. Nariño procured a copy of the "Declaration of the Rights of Man" which was being distributed by the French Assembly. He translated the "Declaration of the Rights of Man" from its original French into Spanish and printed several copies from his own private press. He then circulated these translated pamphlets among his politically like-minded friends. Copies of the pamphlet were distributed to all corners of the continent and created a stirring in the political mentalities of the time. The government soon discovered the material and any copy that was found was burned. Nariño was sentenced to ten years imprisonment in Africa for his leading role in the political group and was exiled from South America. Nariño had previously worked as a tax collector ("Recaudador de diezmos") and was also accused of fraud resulting from this activity.However, when the ship landed in Spain, Nariño escaped from his captors and later went to France and England, where he continued his work supporting the revolution in South America. He found his way back to New Granada where the authorities again caught up with him in Bogotá. This time he was imprisoned in Madrid but somehow managed to escape again and return to Colombia, where he was able to take part in the revolution.
 
1794    EUROPE Counter-revolution of the 9th Thermidor      Arrest and execution of Hébertists and Dantonists
         FRANCE.     The revolution  liberated the peasants from feudal oppression but the restrictions imposed by the Jacobins make it impossible for the propertied strata to make the most of their advantage. This gives rise to opposition which but yesterday had been accorded undivided support while the danger of intervention had existed. The Jacobins have fixed prices for the poor, but also fixed wages and labor requisitions which the people chafe against. In other words, the Jacobins are defending the interests of the bourgeoisie, who alone are to enjoy the fruits of the heroic struggle. The Jacobins become disunited. They do away with the sans culottes. The revolutionary government of Robespierre is attacked by Danton and his supporters from the right and from the left by Hebert and the Club des Cordeliers.In March the revolutionary tribunal sentences the Hebertists to the guillotine and in April the same fate awaits Danton and his followers. The remaining Dantonists and Herntists join in a conspiracy to topple the Jacobins. They win the support of the marais in the Convention and they also have men in the Committee for Public Safety. On July 27th the conspirators interrupt the speeches delivered by Saint-Just and Robespierre to announce their arrest, which is duly ratified. "The Republic has perished, the rule of thieves is at hand", are Robespierre's last words. The next morning Robespierre, Saint-Just, Couthon and their closest followers are guillotined without trial at the Place de Greves. This marks the beginning of the bourgeois counterrevolution.   
Maximiliano Robespierre defendía a la Revolución Francesa contra la reacción interna y las monarquías externas sin más arma que su oratoria fulgurante y su reputación de incorruptible. A la voz de "el terror sin virtud es desastroso, la virtud sin terror es impotente", amenazó con dar a conocer una lista de traidores. El retorcido Fouché difundió en la Convención la falacia de que la mayoría de los convencionistas figuraban en el prontuario. A la mañana siguiente la Convención condenó a Robespierre a la guillotina, de la cual no lo salvó ni su intento de suicidarse con un pistoletazo. Cuando una lista comprende a la mayoría, debe esconderse quien la redacta.
3

                           
1794    Europe East ?Warsaw, PolandMassacre of Praga 20,000All  inhabitants of the Warsaw district Praga were brutally tortured, raped  and  than violently murdered by the Russian troops.
    RUSSIA

    MIDEAST

    AFRICA

    ASIA

    SOUTH ASIA

    AUSTRALIA .

1794        
               
    1794    HAITI. Toussaint' armies defeated the French colonial army, but then joined forces with it in 179-4, following a decree by the revolutionary French government that abolished slavery. Under Toussaint's command, the Saint-Domingue army then defeated invading Spanish and British forces.

1794    IRAN. Qajar dynasty in 1794. The capable Qajar chancellor Amir Kabir established Iran's first modern college system, among other modernizing reforms. Mohammad Khan Qajars successors however gradually transformed Iran into an arena for the rising colonial powers of Imperial Russia and the British Empire, which wielded great political influence in Tehran under the subsequent Qajarid kings. Yet in spite of The Great Game, Iran managed to maintain her sovereignty and was never colonized, unlike neighboring states in the region.Persia suffered several wars with Imperial Russia during the Qajar era, resulting in Persia losing almost half of its territories to Imperial Russia and the British Empire via the treaties of Gulistan, Turkmenchay, and Akhal. Repeated foreign intervention and a corrupt and weakened Qajar rule led to various protests, which by the end of the Qajar period resulted in Persia's constitutional revoltution

_____________________________________________________________

      1795Pinckney's Treaty[85]Defines boundaries of the United States and
      Spanish colonies.
      Treaty of Den Haag[86]The Batavian Republic cedes Venlo, Flanders, and
      Maastricht to France.
      Treaty of GreenvilleEnds the war between the United States and a coalition
      of Native Americans.
      Treaty of BaselThree agreements whereby France made peace with Prussia,
      Spain and Hessen-Kassel; concludes the early stage of the French
      Revolutionary Wars against the First Coalition (1792-1795).

    UNITED STATES CANADA

    MEXICO

1795    CENTRAL AMERICA CARIBBEAN  CURAÇAO. , mostly slaves. Tula had been preparing the insurrection for some weeks. On the morning of August 17,, at the Knip plantation of Caspar Lodewijk van Uytrecht at Bandabou, Curaçao, Tula led an uprising of 40 to 50 slaves. The slaves met on the square of the plantation and informed van Uytrecht they would no longer work for him. He told them to present their complaints to the lieutenant governor at Fort Amsterdam. They left and went from Knip to Lagun, where they freed 22 slaves from jail.From Lagun, the rebels went to the sugar plantation of Saint Kruis, where they were joined by more rebels under Bastian Karpata. Tula then led the escaped slaves from farm to farm, freeing more slaves.The slave owners had now retreated to the city, leaving their plantations unprotected. At the same time, a confederate French slave, Louis Mercier, led another group of freed slaves to Saint Kruis, where he took the commandant, van der Grijp, and ten of his Mulattos prisoner. Mercier also attacked Knip, where he freed more slaves and took some weapons. He then rejoined Tula, locating him by following the trail of destruction Tula had left behind.Van Uytrecht in the meantime had sent his son on horseback with a note to the governor, and at 7 p.m., the council met to prepare a defense of the colony. Governor Johannes de Veer ordered Commander Wierts of the navy ship Medea, which was in port at the time, to defend Fort Amsterdam. Sixty-seven men, both white and black, under the command of Lieutenant R.G. Plegher were sent against the rebels. They went by boat to Boca San Michiel from Willemstad, and from there on foot to Portomari, where Tula and his followers were camping. When the Dutch military arrived there on August 19, they attacked Tula's group, but were defeated.At the plantation of Fontein, Pedro Wakao killed the Dutch owner, Sabel, who became the first white victim of the rebellion. Wakao also found more weapons at Fontein.The governor was notified of Plegher's defeat, and the rebellion was now considered a serious threat to the white community. The governor and the slave owners had raised a force of 60 well-armed horsemen under the command of Captain Baron van Westerholt to renew the attack. Westerholt had orders to offer leniency to the rebels if they would surrender. Among this party was Jacobus Schink, a Franciscan priest who served as negotiator and attempted to prevent bloodshed.Tula was aware of the revolution that had resulted in freedom for slaves in Haiti. Tula argued that, since the Netherlands were now captured by the French, they should get their freedom as well. The three demands of Tula were: an end to collective punishment, an end to labor on Sunday and the freedom to buy clothes and good from others than their own masters. There were two attempts at negotiating with the slaves. The first one carried out by Father Schink. When Father Schink spoke with Tula, he refused to accept anything less than freedom. Schink reported back to Baron Westerholt, the latter decided to get more reinforcements and attack. He attempted a last negotiation, but when he was turned down by the rebels, he ordered that any slave with a weapon be shot. In the ensuing fight, the rebels were defeated. Ten to twenty of them were killed, and the rest escaped.The rebels began a guerrilla campaign, poisoning wells and stealing food. On September 19, Tula and Karpata were betrayed by a slave. They were taken prisoner, and the war was effectively over. (Louis Mercier had already been caught at Knip.) After Tula was captured, he was publicly tortured to death on October 3,, almost seven weeks after the revolt began. Karpata, Louis Mercier and Pedro Wakao were also executed. In addition, many slaves had been massacred in the earlier repression. After the revolt had been crushed the Curaçao government formulated rules that defined the rights of slaves on the islandAt the height of the insurrection, there were probably 1,000 rebels. August 17 is still celebrated in Curaçao to commemorate the beginning of a long fight for freedom. When slavery was finally abolished on the island in 1863, there were fewer than 7,000 slaves. There is a monument to Tula and the rebel slaves on the south coast of Curaçao, near the Holiday Beach Hotel. This is the site where Tula was executed.


    
    1795    SOUTH AMERICA BOLIVAR. Ante la perspectiva de vivir con su maestro, Simón escapó de la casa de su tío el 23 de julio de, para refugiarse en la de su hermana María Antonia, que ejerció su custodia temporal, hasta que se resolvió el litigio judicial en la Real Audiencia de Caracas que devolvió a don Carlos, la custodia de Simón.Simón trató de resistirse pero fue sacado por la fuerza de casa de su hermana y llevado en volandas por un esclavo hasta la vivienda de su maestro.Una vez allí, las condiciones en las que vivía con el maestro Rodríguez no eran las ideales, pues tenía que compartir el espacio con 20 personas en una casa no apta para ello, y por esto Simón escapó de allí un par de veces en las que terminó volviendo por orden de los tribunales.Al poco tiempo, Rodríguez renunció a su cargo de maestro para irse a Europa y la Real Audiencia de Caracas determinó que Simón fuera trasladado a la Academia de Matemáticas, dirigida por el padre Andújar y que funcionaba en casa de su tío Carlos.    Al parecer, en esta academia la formación de Bolívar mejoró notablemente en calidad y cantidad, y fue complementada con lecciones de Historia y Cosmografía impartidas por don Andrés Bello hasta su ingreso en el Batallón de Milicias de blancos de los Valles de Aragua el 14 de enero de 1797.Existe la falsa idea de que entre 1793 y, está inscrito al Colegio Real de Sorèze en el Sur de Francia, en el departamento del Tarn.

1795    EUROPE  NAPOLEON   1795-179-9    The Directoire      He also became engaged to Desiree Clary, later Queen of Sweden and Norway, but the engagement was broken off by Napoleon in 1796.[15]13 Vendemiaire Main article: 13 VendemiaireBonaparte was serving in Paris when royalists and counter-revolutionaries organised an armed protest against the National Convention on 3 October 1795. Bonaparte was given command of the improvised forces defending the Convention in the Tuileries Palace. He seized artillery pieces with the aid of a young cavalry officer, Joachim Murat, who later became his brother-in-law, and used it to repel the attackers, 300 of whom died and the rest fled.[16][note 4] The defeat of the Royalist insurrection extinguished the threat to the Convention and earned him sudden fame, wealth, and the patronage of the new Directory, particularly that of its leader, Barras. Napoleon was quickly promoted to General de Division and within six months, he was given command of the French Army of Italy.
1795 TOM PAINE. EUROPE. Oil painting by Laurent Dabos, circa 1791Paine was released in November 1794
largely because of the work of the new American Minister to France, James
Monroe,[37] who successfully argued the case for Paine's American
citizenship.[38] In July 1795, he was re-admitted into the Convention, as were
other surviving Girondins. Paine was one of only three deputees to oppose the
adoption of the new 1795 constitution, because it eliminated universal suffrage,
which had been proclaimed by the Montagnard Constitution of 1793.[39]
In 1797, Tom Paine lived in Paris with Nicholas Bonneville and his wife,
Margaret. Paine, as well as Bonneville's other controversial guests, aroused the suspicions of authorities. Bonneville hid the Royalist Antoine Joseph Barruel-Beauvert at his home and employed him as a proofreader. Beauvert had been outlawed following the coup of 18 Fructidor on September 4, 1797. Paine believed that America, under John Adams, had betrayed revolutionary France and so in September 1798 he wrote an article for Le Bien Informé, advising the French government on how best to conquer America.[40] Bonneville was then briefly jailed for comparing Napoleon Bonaparte to Oliver Cromwell, in his publication 'The Well Informed of 19 Brumaire Year VIII,' and his presses were confiscated, which meant financial ruin.

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     1795    USA. Eleventh Amendment (1795): Clarifies judicial power over foreign nationals, and limits ability of citizens to sue states in federal courts and under federal law.

1795    AFRICA. Treaty between the United States and Tunis, granting American ships a measure of protection from corsair attacks in return for costly presents. Similar treaties were concluded with Algiers (Sept. 5, and Tripoli (Nov. 4, 1796, and Jan. 3, 179-7

1795    FRANCE. Constitution of the year III passed in France                                    

    1795    -1914-AFRICA. The abolition of the European slave trade did not mean the end of slave exports.Britain embarked on aggressive diplomacy to bring the other European nations into the accord. However, as long as there was demand for slaves in the Americas and in the emerging French Indian Ocean plantation islands, African suppliers and European and American carriers would bring slaves to the buyers. Thus, the end of the transatlantic slave trade occurred when Cuba and Brazil began to enforce the prohibition on slave imports in the 186-0s. Disguised slave exports persisted well into the 20th century


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      1796Treaty of Tripoli[87]Ends the war between the United States and
      Tripoli.
      Treaty of New YorkBetween the Seven Nations of Canada and a U.S.
      delegation led by Abraham Ogden.
      Treaty of ColerainAffirms the binding of the Treaty of New York (1790) and
      establishes the boundary line between the Creek Nation and the United
      States.
      Second Treaty of San IldefonsoTreaty of alliance between Spain and France
      against Britain.



    UNITED STATES CANADA
    1796    JACKSON.  In 1796, Jackson was a delegate to the Tennessee constitutional convention. When Tennessee achieved statehood that year, Jackson was elected its U.S. Representative. In 1797, he was elected U.S. Senator as a Democratic-Republican. He resigned within a year. In 1798, he was appointed a judge of the Tennessee Supreme Court, serving until 1804.Jackson refusing to clean a British officer's boots (1876 lithograph).Besides his legal and political career, Jackson prospered as a slave owner, planter, and merchant. In 1803 he owned a lot, and built a home and the first general store in Gallatin. In 1804, he acquired the Hermitage, a 640-acre (2.6 km2) plantation in Davidson County, near Nashville. Jackson later added 360 acres (1.5 km2) to the farm. The plantation would eventually grow to 1,050 acres (425 ha). The slaves that Jackson owned did the hardest work on the plantation. The primary crop was cotton, grown by enslaved workers. Jackson started with nine slaves, by 1820 he held as many as 44, and later held up to 150 slaves. Throughout his lifetime Jackson would own as many as 300 slaves.Jackson was a major land speculator in West Tennessee after he had negotiated the sale of the land from the Chickasaw Nation in 1818 (termed the Jackson Purchase) and was one of the three original investors who founded Memphis, Tennessee in 1819 (see History of Memphis, Tennessee).


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    1796    EUROPE  NAPOLEON  Also, within weeks of Vendemiaire he was romantically attached to Barras's former mistress, Josephine de Beauharnais, whom he married on 9 March 179-6.179-6French Revolutionary Wars: Campaigns of 1796 and French Revolutionary Wars: Campaigns of 179-7Two days after the marriage, Bonaparte left Paris to take command of the Army of Italy leading it on a successful invasion of Italy. At the battles of Montenotte and Lodi, he defeated Austrian forces, then drove them out of Lombardy and defeated the army of the Papal States.[18] Pope Pius VI had protested at the execution of Louis XVI, so France retaliated by annexing two small papal territories.Napoleon at the Bridge of the Arcole, by Baron Antoine-Jean Gros, (ca. 180-1), Louvre, ParisBonaparte ignored the Directory's order to march on Rome and dethrone the Pope. It was not until February of the following year that General Berthier captured Rome and took Pius VI prisoner. The Pope died of illness while in captivity.  

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1796    1796    BRITAIN. , John Gabriel Stedman published the memoirs of his five-year voyage to Surinam as part of a military force sent out to subdue bosnegers, former slaves living in the inlands. The book is critical of the treatment of slaves and contains many images by William Blake and Francesco Bartolozzi depicting the cruel treatment of runaway slaves. It became part of a large body of abolitionist literature.

     Slave Trade Act

1796        Conspiracy of equals led by Gracchus Babeuf

1796-180-4    Peasant revolt in China led by White Lotus secret society

1796    USA. Washington had declined to serve a third term as President, in his last words to the young country, September 17, 179-6, he issued warnings and beseeched the citizenry to seek harmony in the nation."The Farewell Address"Friends, and fellow citizens:  The period for a new election of a citizen, to administer the executive government of the United States, being not far distant, and the time actually arrived when your thoughts must be employed in designating the person who is to be clothed with that important trust, it appears to me proper, especially as it may conduce to a more distinct expression of the public voice, that I should now apprise you of the resolution I have formed, to decline being considered among the number of those out of whom a choice is to be made ...  In looking forward to the moment which is intended to terminate the career of my public life, my feelings do not permit me to suspend the deep acknowledgment of that debt of gratitude which I owe to my beloved country, for the many honors it has conferred upon me; still more for the steadfast confidence with which it has supported me ...  Here, perhaps, I ought to stop.  But a solicitude for your welfare, which cannot end by with my life, and the apprehension of danger, natural to that solicitude, urge me on an occasion like the present to offer to your solemn contemplation, and to recommend to your frequent review, some sentiments which are the result of much reflection, of no inconsiderable observation, and which appear to me all important to the permanency of your felicity as a people ...  Citizens by birth or choice, of a common country, that country has a right to concentrate your affections.  The name of American ...  must always exalt the just pride of patriotism ...  With slight shades of difference, you have the same religion, manners, habits, and political principles.  You have in a common cause fought and triumphed together.  The independence and liberty you possess are the work of joint councils and joint efforts, of common dangers, sufferings, and successes....  While, then, every part of our country thus feels an immediate and particular interest in union, all the parts combined cannot fail to find in the united mass of means and efforts greater strength, greater resource, proportionally greater security from external danger, a less frequent interruption of their peace by foreign nations, and ...  an exemption from those broils and wars between themselves ...  Of all the dispositions and habits which lead to political prosperity, religion and morality are indispensable supports.  In vain would that man claim the tribute of patriotism which should labor to subvert these great pillars of human happiness, these firmest props of the duties of men and citizens ...  And let us with caution indulge the supposition that morality can be maintained without religion.  Whatever may be conceded to the influence of refined education on minds of peculiar structure, reason and experience both forbid us to expect that national morality can prevail in exclusion of religious principle....  Promote, then ...  institutions for the general diffusion of knowledge.  In proportion as the structure of a government gives force to public opinion, it is essential that public opinion should be enlightened ...  Observe good faith and justice towards all nations.  Cultivate peace and harmony with all.  Religion and morality enjoin this conduct; and can it be that good policy does not equally enjoin it?  It will be worthy of a free, enlightened, and, at no distant period, a great nation to give to mankind the magnanimous and too novel example of a people always guided by an exalted justice and benevolence ...  Can it be, that Providence has not connected the permanent felicity of a nation with its virtue?  The experiment, at least, is recommended by every sentiment which ennobles human nature.  Alas!  is it rendered impossible by its vices?  ... In offering to you, my countrymen, these counsels of an old and affectionate friend, I dare not hope they will make the strong and lasting impression I could wish, that they will control the usual current of the passions, or prevent our nation from running the course which has hitherto marked the destiny of nations ...  Though in reviewing the incidents of my administration, I am unconscious of intentional error.  I am nevertheless too sensible of my defects not to think it probable that I may have committed many errors.... I fervently beseech the Almighty to avert or mitigate the evils to which they may tend.  I shall also carry with me the hope that my country will never cease to view them with indulgence, and that after forty-five years of my life dedicated to its service, with an upright zeal, the faults of incompetent abilities will be consigned to oblivion, as myself must soon be to the mansions of rest.Relying on its kindness in this as in other things, and actuated by that fervent love towards it which is so natural to a man who views in it the native soil of himself and his progenitors for several generations, I anticipate with pleasing expectation that retreat, in which I promise myself to realize, without alloy, the sweet enjoyment of partaking, in the midst of my fellow citizens, the benign influence of good laws under a free government, the ever favorite object of my heart, and the happy reward, as I trust, of our mutual cares, labors, and dangers.

1796-    Jay's Treaty was concluded. It provided for the evacuation of the border posts in 1796, permitted trade with the British East Indies, placed trade between the United States and Britain on a basis of "reciprocal and perfect liberty," and admitted American boats of not more than 70 tons' burden to the West Indies. Joint commissions were provided for settling the questions of debt and the northeast boundary. Claims on behalf of loyalists were dropped, balanced by claims for slaves carried away by the British armies. Claims arising from alleged illegal seizures of ships were referred to commissions. The Senate grudgingly ratified it, after striking out the clause with respect to the West Indies.

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1797Treaty of Leoben[88]Preliminary accord to the Treaty of Campo Formio; Austria loses Belgium and Lombardy in exchange for Istria and Dalmatia. Treaty of Campo FormioAustria recognizes hegemony of French Republic over  northern Italy and Belgium. Effective end of the War of the First Coalition (1792-1797).Treaty of TolentinoBetween France and the Papal States. Treaty with TunisPeace treaty between the United States and the 'Barbary State' of Tunis, nominally part of the Ottoman  Empire.

    UNITED STATES CANADA

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1797    EUROPE  NAPOLEON   Bonaparte led his army into Austria and forced it to sue for peace. The resulting Treaty of Campo Formio gave France control of most of northern Italy, along with the Low Countries and Rhineland, but a secret clause promised the Republic of Venice to Austria.[19] Bonaparte then marched on Venice and forced its surrender, ending more than 1,000 years of independence. Later in 1797, Bonaparte organised many of the French-dominated territories in Italy into the Cisalpine Republic.His series of military triumphs was a result of his ability to apply his knowledge of conventional military thought to real-world situations, as demonstrated by his creative use of artillery tactics, using it as a mobile force to support his infantry. As he described it: "...Although I have fought sixty battles, I have learned nothing which I did not know at the beginning. Look at Caesar; he fought the first like the last."[20] Contemporary paintings of his headquarters during the Italian campaign depict his use of the Chappe semaphore line, first implemented in 1792. He was also adept at both espionage and deception and had a sense of when to strike. He often won battles by concentrating his forces on an unsuspecting enemy, by using spies to gather information about opposing forces, and by concealing his own troop deployments. In this campaign, often considered his greatest, Napoleon's army captured 160,000 prisoners, 2,000 cannons and 170 standards.[21] A year of campaigning had witnessed breaks with the traditional norms of 18th century warfare and marked a new era in military history.While campaigning in Italy, General Bonaparte became increasingly influential in French politics. He published two newspapers, ostensibly for the troops in his army, but widely circulated within France as well. In May 1797 he founded a third newspaper, published in Paris, Le Journal de Bonaparte et des hommes vertueux.[22] Elections in mid-1797 gave the royalist party increased power, alarming Barras and his allies on the Directory.[23] The royalists, in turn, began attacking Bonaparte for looting Italy and overstepping his authority in dealings with the Austrians. Bonaparte sent General Augereau to Paris to lead a coup d'etat and purge the royalists on 4 September (18 Fructidor). This left Barras and his Republican allies in firm control again, but dependent on Bonaparte to maintain it. Bonaparte himself proceeded to the peace negotiations with Austria, then returned to Paris in December as the conquering hero and the dominant force in government, more popular than the Directors.[24]Egyptian expedition.


 1797- Billy Budd
by Herman Melville
(1819-1891)
Type of work:
Allegoric tragedy
Setting:
H.M.S.  Indomitable; 1797
Principal characters:
Billy Budd, a cheerfully innocent young foretopman in the British fleet
Captain Vere, captain of the Indomitable
John Claggart, the ship's vile master-of-arms
Story Overview:
Billy Budd knew nothing of his parents, only that he had been found in Bristol in a silk-lined basket.  "Yes Billy Budd was a foundling, a presumable by-blow, and, evidently, no ignoble one."  It was apparent to any onlooker that this large, healthy, jubilant young man was of a better class than the sailors who surrounded him on the Rights-of-Man.
This obvious nobility was what caught Lieutenant Ratcliffe's attention when he boarded the Rights-of-Man with the assignment to impress part of her crew into service on Captain Vere's H.M.S.  Indomitable.  Billy Budd was chosen as the only crew member to be drafted into His Majesty's service.
The captain of the Rights-of-Man protested the Lieutenant's decision.  Billy Budd, he said, was his best man, "the jewel of 'em."  The captain spoke on:  "Before I shipped that young fellow, my forecastle was a rat-pit of quarrels .... But Billy came; and it was like a Catholic priest striking peace in an Irish shindy.  Not that he preached to them or said or did anything in particular; but a virtue went out of him, sugaring the sour ones."
Still, the officer could not persuade the lieutenant to reconsider, and soon Billy Budd found himself on one of the Indomitable's transfer boats.
Billy, only twenty-one, was not in the least self-conscious.  "Billy in many respects was little more than a sort of upright barbarian, much ...  as Adam presumably might have been ere the urbane serpent wriggled himself into his company."  And though this Edenic innocence was crowned by a halo of virginal illiteracy, the young man could sing to touch the heart of a prince.  It was as if his angelic voice were but the expression of the harmony within him.  Despite all this, when Billy had strong "heart-feelings" he developed a pronounced stutter; when deeply pressed he was even rendered speechless.
The crew of the Indomitable took the same liking to Billy as the Rights-of-Man crew had.  Soon, Captain Vere, commander of the Indomitable, considered giving Billy—or "Baby Budd, the Handsome Sailor" as the lad came to be called—a promotion.
But one of the ship's petty officers, John Claggart, master-at-arms, was at odds with Budd.  Claggart functioned as "a sort of chief of police charged among other matters with the duty of preserving order on the populous lower gun decks."  A tall personage of about thirty-five years, he "looked like a man of high quality, social and moral."  Inwardly, however, Claggart was a schemer, shrewd and deceitful, who secretly resented Billy.  John Claggart had not learned his guiles in any earthly school; he had been born evil—in the same way that Billy had been born innocent and filled with kindness.
After young Billy was brought on board the Indomitable—especially after witnessing his first "gangway-punishment," a brutal flogging—he had "resolved that never through remissness would he ...  do or omit aught that might merit even verbal reproof."  Yet for even the most petty offenses he found John Claggart's underlings besetting him with caustic chastisement.
Budd went to the experienced and wise old Danskar mainmastman for counsel—the very crewman who had lovingly nicknamed him Baby.  "The salt seer attentively listened, accompanying the foretopman's recital with queer twitching of his small ferret eyes .... " Then the old man spoke:  "Baby Budd, [the master-of-arms] is down on you."
Soon after this warning, Billy accidentally spilled some soup on the gun deck—a not-too-uncommon mishap at sea—just as Claggart chanced to walk by.  The master-of-arms did not betray even a hint of hostility or a clue that anything was amiss.  In truth, though, John Claggart, in his festering hatred of the lad, felt sure that the spilled soup was an open show of Billy's contempt for him.  His dislike of Billy, "like a subterranean fire, was eating its way deeper and deeper in him."
Some few nights after the spilled-soup incident, Billy was approached by an ally of Claggart's who offered to pay him for his support in some nebulous scheme—perhaps a mutiny.  Disgusted at the offer, Billy broke in:  "I don't know what you are d-d-driving at, or what you mean, but you had better g-g-go where you belong!  If you d-don't start, I'll t-t-toss you back over the r-rail!'"
Shortly thereafter, however, Claggart went privately to Captain Vere and hinted to him that a mutiny was brewing.  In his silvery, low, serpent-like voice, he implied that William Budd was behind the plot.  Captain Vere was astonished.  "There is a yardarm-end for the false witness," he warned Claggart.  Undaunted, Claggart assured the Captain that he would soon have proof of Budd's false character.
Captain Vere summoned Billy Budd to his cabin.  As Billy stood before him, with Claggart in attendance, Vere saw once again in Budd the very innocence of Adam before the fall.  Then he turned to Claggart and commanded him to repeat his accusation.  Billy was so repulsed by the falseness which then spewed out of Claggart's mouth, that he was rendered speechless.  Captain Vere put his hand on Billy's shoulder and told him to take his time.  But a helpless, hopeless feeling welled up in the young man's breast; his face took on "an expression which was as a crucifixion to behold.  The next instant, quick as the flame from a discharged cannon at night, his right arm shot out, and Claggart dropped to the deck."
Minutes later, the ship's surgeon pronounced Claggart dead.  Captain Vere's mind instantly turned to the Biblical story of Ananias, whom God had struck down for lying.  "It is the divine judgment ...  " he cried.  "Look!  Struck dead by an angel of God!  Yet the angel must hang!"
Hang an angel of God?  The crewmen stood aghast.  Was Captain Vere responding with a martinet's devotion to official statute, or had the turn of events somehow driven him to madness?  "Who in the rainbow can draw the line where the violet tint ends and the orange tint begins?  Distinctly we see the difference of the colors, but where exactly does the one first blendingly enter into the other?"  Captain Vere summarily called for a drumhead court composed of the first lieutenant, the captain of marines, and the sailing master.
The court convened in Captain Vere's cabin, where the crime had taken place.  As the sole witness, Vere was first to present his testimony.  The jury then asked Billy if the testimony was true.  "Captain Vere tells the truth," Billy confirmed.  "It is just as Captain Vere says, but it is not as the master-at-arms said ...  He foully lied to my face and in presence of my captain, and I had to say something, and I could only say it with a blow, God help me!"
Billy was ushered outside and the court was left to make a decision.  In their love for the innocent young sailor, however, they could only remain silent.  At last Captain Vere broke the eerie hush:  "However pitilessly the law may operate in any instances, we nevertheless adhere to it and administer it ...  Let not warm hearts betray heads that should be cool."  To the simple minds of the ship's crew, the Captain explained, it would appear that Billy Budd had committed homicide "in a flagrant act of mutiny."  If he was not punished accordingly, his acquittal could encourage the men to rise in brazen rebellion.  With this, reluctantly, the court declared Billy guilty—and sentenced him to be hanged from the yardarm in the early morning watch.
Captain Vere informed Billy of the verdict.  Later that night the ship's chaplain paid the young prisoner a visit and tried to awaken him to both the reality of his imminent death and the hope of salvation through his Savior.  But the chaplain's efforts fell on the condemned man "like a gift placed in the palm of an outreached hand upon which the fingers do not close."  Finally, he withdrew, reasoning that, come Judgement Day, Billy's childlike innocence would serve him better than religion.
The next morning, the crew assembled for the hanging.  " ...  None spake but in whisper, and few spake at all."  The final preparations were made, and before them stood Billy, the humiliating hemp about his neck.  His last words, " ...  wholly unobstructed in the utterance, were these—`God bless Captain Vere!' ...  with one voice from alow and aloft came a resonant sympathetic echo—'God bless Captain Vere!' And yet at that instant Billy alone must have been in their hearts, even as he was in their eyes."
With the signal given, "the vapory fleece" shot downward "with a soft glory as of the fleece of the Lamb of God."  As the body was pulled aloft by the rope around its neck, the dawn broke, casting a majestic shade of rose-colored light on the ascending figure.  To the wonder of all, Billy never struggled in death.  It was as if his inner peace had at last somehow overcome his body and, in that moment, was gone.
As the Indomitable sailed on, it entered into combat with the French ship Athée ("Atheist").  In the midst of the fighting Captain Vere was mortally wounded by a musket ball.  Before his death, he was heard to murmur the words, "Billy Budd, Billy Budd."
The Indomitable emerged from her engagement victorious.  Weeks later, an article appeared in a naval chronicle describing how John Claggart had uncovered an evil plot aboard the Indomitable, headed by one William Budd.  Confronted by his perfidy, Budd had drawn a knife and stabbed Claggart in the heart.  For the world at large, this was the final notice of Billy Budd.  The incident—like Billy—was dead.
A ballad, however—"Billy in the Darbies"—was circulated among the working classes in memory of the poor "Handsome Sailor."  And sailors, for years to come, kept track of the spar from which Billy had been hanged, reverencing it even as the Cross.
Commentary:
Herman Melville's final work—left unfinished at his death—Billy Budd is a unique treatise on the conflict of joy and innocence versus bitterness and guile.  Billy Budd is the personification of mankind's joy, peace, and general goodness.  Throughout the work Melville compares Billy to Adam, Christ, Joseph, and other messengers—and martyrs—of peace.
On the other hand, Billy's nemesis, John Claggart, was a serpent among men, born with an evil guile and the need to destroy peace and happiness.  This is Melville's bleak and austerely hopeful commentary on mankind:  that Claggart-like men have existed throughout history, and forever will be born, to breed hate, false accusations and betrayal; that beings born in purity—the true "elect"—will inevitably serve both as scapegoats and beacons of illumination in this world; and that both the good and the evil among us will live out their ordained destinies—either damned on earth to the hell of their own tormented souls, or taken up to heaven as spirits eternally triumphant, saved in the midst of darkness by their inner, innocent light.


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1797     2John AdamsMarch 4, 179-7March 4, 180-1FederalistNo party[1]Thomas Jefferson3

1797-    The conclusion of Jay's treaty with Britain involved the United States in difficulties with France, which regarded the treaty as evidence of a pro-British policy by the United States. The difficulties culminated in the attempt of the French Directory to extort money from the three American commissioners, Pinckney, Marshall, and Gerry, in the so-called XYZ affair. Fighting on the sea occurred, a navy department was created, Washington was named commander of the army, and until Sept. 30, 180-0, a naval war was carried on. By the Treaty of 180-0, the treaty of alliance of 17-78 with France was abrogated.

After the American Revolution the Conservatives aka Federalist Party hijacked the nation. The debate came down to this, the plain people talked of government for virtue and the common good, the rich had a different view which is good government protects the rich from uprisings by the plain people after they(the rich) screwed the plain people via organized money corrupting the politicial process.

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1798    UNITED STATES CANADAJohn Fries's Rebellion, also called the House Tax Rebellion, the Home Tax Rebellion, and, in Deitsch the Heesses-Wasser Uffschtand, was an armed tax revolt among Pennsylvania Dutch farmers between 1799 and 1800.

Fries's Rebellion was the third of three tax-related rebellions in the 18th century United States, the earlier two being Shays' Rebellion (central and western Massachusetts, 1786–87) and the Whiskey Rebellion (western Pennsylvania, 1794).






When the Quasi-War with France threatened to escalate in 1798, Congress raised a large army and enlarged the navy. To pay for it, Congress in July 1798 imposed $2 million in new taxes on real estate and slaves, apportioned among the states according to the requirements of the Constitution. It was the first (and only) such federal tax.

Congress had also recently passed the Alien and Sedition Acts, criminalizing dissent and increasing the power of the executive branch under John Adams.

The beginning of the rebellion

In July 1798, during the troubles between the United States and France now known as the Quasi-War, the US Congress levied a direct tax (on dwelling-houses, lands and slaves; sometimes called the Direct House Tax of 1798) of $2 million, of which Pennsylvania was called upon to contribute $237,000.

There were very few slaves in Pennsylvania, and the tax was accordingly assessed upon dwelling-houses and land, the value of the houses being determined by the number and size of the windows. The inquisitorial nature of the proceedings, with assessors riding around and counting windows, aroused strong opposition, and many refused to pay, making the constitutional argument that this tax was not being levied in proportion to population.

Pennsylvania auctioneer John Fries organized meetings, starting in February 1799, to discuss a collective response to the tax. As an itinerant auctioneer, Fries was well acquainted with the German-Americans issues in the southeastern part of Pennsylvania. Many advocated resistance in response to the tax. In Milford township, particularly, assessors were unsuccessful in completing their tax assessments due to intimidation. At a meeting called by government representatives in an attempt to explain the tax in a way as to defuse tensions, protesters waving liberty flags, some armed and in Continental Army uniforms, shouted them down and turned the meeting into a protest rally.

The assessors at first determined to continue their work in Milford. Fries personally warned the assessors to quit their work, but they ignored the threat. He then led a small armed band that harassed the assessors enough that they decided to abandon Milford for the time being.

In early March, a local militia company and a growing force of armed irregulars met, marching to the accompaniment of drum and fife. About a hundred set off for Quakertown in pursuit of the assessors, whom they intended to place under arrest.[1] They captured a number of assessors there, releasing them with a warning not to return and to tell the government what had happened to them.[2]

The rebellion spreads

Opposition to the tax spread to other parts of Pennsylvania. In Penn, the appointed assessor resigned under public threats; the assessors in Hamilton[clarification needed] and Northampton also begged to resign, but were refused as nobody else could be found to take their places.[3]

Federal warrants were issued, and the U.S. Marshal began arresting people for tax resistance in Northampton. Arrests were made without much incident until the marshal reached Macungie, then known as Millerstown,[4] where a crowd formed to protect a man from arrest. Failing to make that arrest, the marshal made a few others and returned to Bethlehem with his prisoners.

Two separate groups of rebels independently vowed to liberate the prisoners, and marched on Bethlehem.[5][6] The militia prevailed and Fries and other leaders were arrested.

Trials

Thirty men went on trial in Federal court. Fries and two others were tried for treason and, with Federalists stirring up a frenzy, were sentenced to be hanged. President John Adams pardoned Fries and others convicted of treason. Adams was prompted by the narrower constitutional definition of treason, and he later added that the rebels were "as ignorant of our language as they were of our laws" and were being used by "great men" in the opposition party. He issued a general amnesty for everyone involved on May 21, 1800.[7]

Historians are agreed that the Federalists overreacted and mishandled a small episode.[8][9] The long-term impact was that the German American communities rejected the Federalist Party.


    MEXICO

    CENTRAL AMERICA CARIBBEAN

    SOUTH AMERICA

1798    EUROPE  NAPOLEON   French Invasion of Egypt (1798)In March 1798, Bonaparte proposed a military expedition to seize Egypt, then a province of the Ottoman  Empire, seeking to protect French trade interests and undermine Britain's access to India. The Directory, though troubled by the scope and cost of the enterprise, readily agreed so the popular general would be away from the center of power.[25]Battle of the Nile by Thomas LunyIn May, Bonaparte was elected a member of the French Academy of Sciences. His Egyptian expedition included a group of 167 scientists: mathematicians, naturalists, chemists and geodesers among them; their discoveries included the Rosetta Stone and their work was published in the Description of Egypt in 1809.[26] This deployment of intellectual resources is considered by Ahmed Youssef an indication of Bonaparte's devotion to the principles of the Enlightenment, and by Juan Cole as a masterstroke of propaganda, obfuscating imperialism.[27] In a largely unsuccessful effort to gain the support of the Egyptian populace, Bonaparte also issued proclamations casting himself as a liberator of the people from Ottoman  oppression, and praising the precepts of Islam.[note 5]En route to his campaign in Egypt, Napoleon seized Malta on 9 June 1798. Requesting safe harbor to resupply his ships, he waited until his ships were safely in port, and then turned his guns on his hosts. The Knights Hospitaller were unable to defend themselves from this attack.On 1 July, Napoleon landed successfully at Alexandria, temporarily eluding pursuit by the British Royal Navy. After landing he successfully fought the Battle of Chobrakit against the Mamluks, an old power in the Middle East. This battle helped the French plan their attack in the Battle of the Pyramids fought over a week later, about 6 km from the pyramids. Bonaparte's forces were greatly outnumbered by the Mamelukes cavalry—20,000 against 60,000—but Bonaparte formed hollow squares, keeping supplies safely on the inside. In all, 300 French and approximately 6,000 Egyptians were killed.[28]While the battle on land was a resounding French victory, the British Royal Navy managed to win at sea. The ships that had landed Bonaparte and his army sailed back to France, while a fleet of ships of the line remained to support the army along the coast. On 1 August the British fleet under Horatio Nelson fought the French in the Battle of the Nile, capturing or destroying all but two French vessels. With Bonaparte land-bound, his goal of strengthening the French position in the Mediterranean Sea was frustrated, but his army succeeded in consolidating power in Egypt, though it faced repeated uprisings.Bonaparte Before the Sphinx, (ca. 1868) by Jean-Leon Gerome, Hearst CastleIn early 1799, he led the army into the Ottoman  province of Damascus (Syria and Galilee) and defeated numerically superior Ottoman  forces in several battles, but his army was weakened by disease—mostly bubonic plague—and poor supplies. Napoleon led 13,000 French soldiers to the conquest of the coastal towns of Arish, Gaza, Jaffa, and Haifa.The storming of Jaffa was particularly brutal. Though the French took control of the city within a few hours of the attack beginning, the French soldiers bayoneted approximately 2,000 Turkish soldiers trying to surrender. The soldiers then turned on the inhabitants of the town. Men, women, and children were robbed and murdered for three days, and the massacre ended with even more bloodshed, as Napoleon ordered 3,000 Turkish prisoners executed.[30]With his army weakened by the plague, Napoleon was unable to reduce the fortress of Acre, and returned to Egypt in May. To speed up the retreat, he took the controversial step of ordering the poisoning of plague-stricken men along the way; it is not clear how many died.[31] His supporters have argued this decision was necessary given the continuing harassment of stragglers by Ottoman  forces. Back in Egypt, on 25 July, Bonaparte defeated an Ottoman  amphibious invasion at Abukir.[32] With the Egyptian campaign stagnating, and political instability developing back home, Bonaparte left Egypt for France in August 1799, leaving his army under General Kleber.[33]Ruler of FranceMain article: Napoleonic EraCoup d'etat: 18 BrumaireWhilst in Egypt, Bonaparte stayed informed of European affairs by relying on the irregular delivery of newspapers and dispatches. On 24 August 1799, he set sail for France, taking advantage of the temporary departure of British ships blockading French coastal ports. The Directory had already ordered his and the army's return, as France had suffered a series of military defeats in the War of the Second Coalition, and a possible invasion of French territory loomed. He did not receive these orders due to poor lines of communication and on his return the Directory discussed his 'desertion' though they did not discipline him.British satire shows Napoleon with his grenadiers driving the Council of Five Hundred from the Orangery at Château de Saint-CloudBy the time he reached Paris in October, a series of French victories meant an improvement in the previously precarious military situation and discussion of his 'desertion' was brushed aside. The Republic was bankrupt, however, and the ineffective Directory was unpopular with the public.Bonaparte was approached by one of the Directors, Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes, seeking his support for a coup to overthrow the constitutional government. The plot included Bonaparte's brother Lucien, then serving as speaker of the Council of Five Hundred, Roger Ducos, another Director, Joseph Fouche and Talleyrand. On 9 November—18 Brumaire—Bonaparte was charged with the safety of the legislative councils and the following day, he led troops to seize control and disperse them, leaving a rump legislature to name Bonaparte, Sieyes, and Ducos as provisional Consuls to administer the government. Though Sieyes expected to dominate the new regime, he was outmanoeuvered by Bonaparte, who drafted the Constitution of the Year VIII and secured his own election as First Consul. This made Bonaparte the most powerful person in France, powers that were increased by the Constitution of the Year X, which declared him First Consul for life.French ConsulateMain article: French ConsulateConsuls: Cambaceres, Bonaparte and LebrunBonaparte instituted several lasting reforms, including centralized administration of the departements, higher education, a tax system, a central bank, law codes, and road and sewer systems. He negotiated the Concordat of 180-1 with the Catholic Church, seeking to reconcile the mostly Catholic population with his regime. It was presented alongside the Organic Articles, which regulated public worship in France. His set of civil laws, the Napoleonic code or Civil Code, has importance to this day in modern continental Europe, Latin America and the US, specifically Louisiana.The Code was prepared by committees of legal experts under the supervision of Jean Jacques Regis de Cambaceres, who held the office Second Consul from 179-9 to 180-4; Bonaparte participated actively in the sessions of the Council of State that revised the drafts. Other codes were commissioned by Bonaparte to codify criminal and commerce law. In 1808, a Code of Criminal Instruction was published, which enacted precise rules of due process.[37] Though by today's standards the code excessively favours the prosecution, when enacted, it sought to protect personal freedoms and to remedy the prosecutorial abuses commonplace in contemporary European courts.

1798 ICONOCLASM.   During the French Revolution, people widely destroyed religious and
  monarchical imagery.
  During and after the Russian Revolution, widespread destruction of religious
  and secular imagery took place, as well as destruction of imagery related to
  the Czar.
  During and after the Communist overthrow of the monarchy in China, as well as
  during the later Cultural Revolution, there was widespread destruction of
  religious and secular imagery in China, including in Tibet.
  After the Second Vatican Council in the late twentieth century, some Roman
  Catholic parish churches discarded much of their traditional imagery, art, and
  architecture.[2]
  During the 1956 Hungarian Revolution in Budapest, and through the fall of
  Communism in 1989, protesters often attacked and took down sculptures and
  images of Joseph Stalin, leader of the USSR.[3]
 

    RUSSIA

1798    MIDEAST  PALESTINE. Napoleon entered the land. The war with Napoleon and subsequent misadministration by Egyptian and Ottoman (Muslim) rulers, reduced the population of Palestine. Arabs and Jews fled to safer and more prosperous lands. Revolts by Palestinian Arabs against Egyptian and Ottoman  rule at this time may have helped to catalyze Palestinian national feeling. Subsequent reorganization and opening of the Turkish Empire to foreigners restored some order. They also allowed the beginnings of Jewish settlement under various Zionist and proto-Zionist movements.  Both Arab and Jewish population increased.  

    AFRICA

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    AUSTRALIA
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1798    1798    The crowning blow to the Catholic church occurs when the French army marches into Rome and extorts a huge protection fee of the Pope. Napoleon takes the Pope prisoner.

1798    The first such measures were the Alien and Sion Acts passed by Congress in 1798 during the administration of the second president of the United States John Adams. The Acts, consisting of four separate laws, made it more difficult to become a citizen, sought to control real or imagined foreign agents operating in the United States, and also gave the government broad powers to control "sion." Sion was defined as "resisting any law of the United States or any act of the President" punishable by a prison sentence of up to two years. It also made illegal "false, scandalous or malicious writing" directed against either the government or government officials. The next President, Thomas Jefferson declared that three out of the four laws were unconstitutional and pardoned everyone who had been convicted under them
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    1798-1802    Second coalition against France (England, the kingdom of Naples, Austria, Russia and Turkey                      

 1798        Vinegar Hill rebellion in Ireland            
 1798    CASANOVA. Casanova died on June 4th 1798. His last words are said to be: "I have     lived as a philosopher and I die as a Christian".Casanova's other desiresAlthough best known for his prowess in seduction, he was recognised by his     contemporaries as an extraordinary person. Prince Charles de Ligne, a great Austrian statesman who knew most of the prominent individuals of the age, thought that Casanova was the most interesting man he had ever met and said of    him, "there is nothing in the world of which he is not capable". Count Lamberg wrote that he knew "few persons who can equal him in the     range of knowledge and, in general, of his intelligence and imagination".During Casanova's numerous travels he encountered notable figures such as Pope    Clement XIII, Catherine the Great, Frederick the Great (who afterwards commented on his good looks), Madame de Pompadour, Crebillon, who was also his French teacher, Voltaire, Benjamin Franklin, and many others. He was present at the premiere of Mozart's Don Giovanni and possibly made last-minute revisions to Lorenzo Da Ponte's libretto. Although Casanova took the role of businessman, diplomat, spy, politician, philosopher, magician, and writer, with more than twenty books and several plays credited to his name (including a translation of the Iliad and a history of Poland — "Istoria della turbolenze della Polonia") — most of which were generally admired — for the greater part of his life he was a stranger to work, living largely on his quick wits, luck, social charm, and the money freely given to him by others. Sinner or sinned against    Judith Summers' biography of Casanova paints a different picture of him than the traditional one. She describes how he was attracted to strong-minded women who     presented him with an intellectual as well as a romantic challenge. He did not pursue sex for its own sake and if he had nothing to say to a woman, rarely wanted to sleep with her. She also puts forward the theory that among his 200 plus lovers were many women who took advantage of his kindness, generosity, and vulnerability.A story to which there is more than seems at first glance is the gorgeous nun who slipped Casanova a note suggesting he meet her in private. Casanova waxed     lyrical about tasting the forbidden fruit and trespassing on the rights of the omnipotent husband. However, it transpired that the nun, M.M, was a sexual predator beholden to François de Bernis, the French ambassador, who was fully complicit of the seduction of Casanova and who most likely observed their first tryst from a secret chamber. Casanova fell deeply in love with M.M; however, she always put the ambassador first and outdid Casanova in her sexual extremism by seducing his female fourteen-year-old former lover, first into a three-in-a-bed romp including herself and Casanova, and then with the ambassador. The debauchery of this young girl he had loved sickened Casanova, but he was so in love he colluded.Nor was the nun the only one to take advantage of Casanova's nature. The greatest love of his life, Henriette, as he called her (her real name was most likely Adelaide de Gueidan), took advantage of him to secure passage to Parma, was ensconced in the finest accommodation at his expense, then abandoned him with the instruction that if they were to meet in future he was not to acknowledge that he had known her. That she was on the run from a husband who intended her for a convent due to her infidelity and that Casanova had first encountered her in the arms of a Hungarian soldier she had enlisted to assist     her passage to Parma did not seem to prepare him for the outcome. Though 'adopted' by a rich Venetian senator whose life he had saved, and with a small private income, Casanova was by no means rich and the maids and language teachers he had hired for Henriette had decimated his finances. He sought solace in sex in Paris, at one point keeping twenty lovers in twenty apartments.The most devastating blow was yet to come, however. Marianne de Charpillon was a fresh-faced courtesan of sixteen being touted around London by her family in the hope of finding a suitor rich enough to support them all. With only a basic grasp of English and — it would seem — of the wiles of women, Casanova was captivated by the French-speaking prostitute. She teased, tormented, and tantalised him, being set up in a house in Chelsea along the way yet still not succumbing to his physical advances. On one occasion she curled up into a ball making penetration impossible and driving the furiously frustrated Casanova almost to rape. Yet, when he would attempt to distance himself from her, she pursued, lavishing gifts on him. He even forgave her indiscretions: upon catching her in flagrante with her male hairdresser, he smashed the house up before being reduced to a penitent submissive in a matter of minutes by this teenager, despite being a supposedly worldly man in his thirties. Ultimately she ruined his confidence in women and in himself, which goes some way towards explaining why the man whose name would become synonymous with lovers spent the last sixteen years of his life as a broken man working as a librarian in a  remote corner of Bohemia.It is alleged that his only revenge on Marianne de Charpillon before fleeing    London was to buy a parrot, teach it to say "Charpillon is a greater whore than her mother!", and resell the parrot in the market.Unusual for his time, Casanova was egalitarian towards the sexes. He accepted women as his equals and was non-judgmental about their     behavior, according them the same status to do as they wished as he did men.    Quotations"I am writing My Life to laugh at myself, and I am succeeding." was his father.

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        UNITED STATES CANADA

        MEXICO

        CENTRAL AMERICA CARIBBEAN

        SOUTH AMERICA

    1799    EUROPE   Coup d'etat of the 18th Brumaire. Napoleon comes to power.180-4    Consulat rules France   Napoleon staged a coup d'etat and installed himself as First Consul; five years later he crowned himself Emperor of the French. In the first decade of the nineteenth century, he turned the armies of France against almost every major European power, dominating continental Europe through a lengthy streak of military victories—epitomized through battles such as Austerlitz and Friedland—and the formation of extensive alliance systems, appointing close friends and family members as monarchs and government figures of French-dominated states.The disastrous French invasion of Russia in 1812 marked a turning point in Napoleon's fortunes. The campaign wrecked the Grande Armee, which never regained its previous strength.

        RUSSIA

        MIDEAST

1799    AFRICA.  Aware of how Highland Clearances benefited the landlord but not the tenant, the settlers revolted in 1799. The revolt was only put down by the arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons, who also arrived via Nova Scotia.Thousands of slaves were returned to or liberated in Freetown. Most chose to remain in Sierra Leone. These returned Africans were from all areas of Africa.They joined the previous settlers and together became known as Creole or Krio people. Cut off from their homes and traditions by the experience of slavery, they assimilated some aspects of British styles of life and built a flourishing trade on the West African coast. The lingua franca of the colony was Krio, a creole language rooted in eighteenth century African American English, which quickly spread across the region as a common language of trade and Christian proselytizing. British and American abolitionist movements envisioned Freetown as embodying the possibilities of a post-slave trade Africa.The colonial era
        ASIA

        SOUTH ASIA

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1799     -  Jewish reform of religion       

1799        
                
1799    England conquers Mysore     

1799     Pope Pius 6th expires in a sheep pen. It is the end of the Pope´s empire, but he  has completed secret instructions for his successor. A new Pope establishes himself as supreme authority over church affairs. The church is nevertheless on the defensive. Catholicism becomes anti-republican, against democracy and social equality. Catholicism becomes reactionary.The industrial revolution is in full swing. The world becomes more liveable.  Spiritual concerns are left behind.                  

1799     DEUTSCHLAND.Amerikanische Forschungsreise (179-9–180-4)  BearbeitenMehrfach während der Vorbereitungszeit hatte Humboldt seine Pläne wegen politischer und kriegerischer Verwklungen im Zeichen des aufstrebenden Generals Napoléon Bonaparte ändern und Reiseaktivitäten abbrechen müssen, zuletzt im Dezember 179-8 den Versuch, von Südfrankreich aus auf ein Schiff zu gelangen, das Bonpland und ihm den Anschluss an die ägyptische Expedition Napoleons hätte ermöglichen sollen. Stattdessen machten sich nun beide mit sämtlichen für die Forschungsreise vorgesehenen Instrumenten auf den Weg nach Madrid – meist zu Fuß neben dem Wagen einhergehend – um für das amerikanische Forschungsunternehmen womöglich die Unterstützung der spanischen Krone zu erlangen. Die Vielzahl der unterwegs erhobenen Messdaten brachte erstmals geographischen Aufschluss über die Gestalt der innerspanischen Hochebene.Sein Ruf als Wissenschaftler und Bergminenexperte (diese Privatexpedition konnte sich für Spanien u. U. lohnen; tatsächlich führten später seine Beschreibungen der mexikanischen Silberminen in dem „Versuch über den politischen Zustand des Königreichs Neu-Spanien" zu massiven ausländischen Investitionen), sein diplomatisches Geschick und sein von der exzellenten Beherrschung des Spanischen unterstütztes Auftreten bei Hofe verschafften Alexander von Humboldt schon bald Empfehlungen und einen so privilegierten Forscher-Reisepass, wie ihn nach seiner eigenen Einschätzung kein Ausländer je erhalten hatte. Er sicherte ihm volle Handlungsfreiheit und das Entgegenkommen aller Gouverneure und Beamten im ganzen spanischen Kolonialgebiet. Abreisedatum mit der spanischen Fregatte ‚Pizarro‘ von La Coruña war der 5. Juni 1799. Humboldt schreibt in einem Brief vom selben Tag: „Ich werde Pflanzen und Fossilien sammeln, mit vortrefflichen Instrumenten astronomische Beobachtungen machen können (...) Das alles ist aber nicht Hauptzweck meiner Reise. Und auf das Zusammenwirken der Kräfte, den Einfluß der unbelebten Schöpfung auf die belebte Tier- und Pflanzenwelt, auf diese Harmonie sollen stets meine Augen gerichtet sein!"Mit an Bord nahm Humboldt rund 50 der modernsten Instrumente, darunter Sextanten, Quadranten, Teleskope, diverse Fernrohre, eine Längenuhr, Inklinometer, ein Deklinatorium, ein Cyanometer, Eudiometer, Aräometer, ein Hyetometer, Elektrometer, Hygrometer, Barometer und Thermometer. Bereits den Zwischenaufenthalt auf der Kanareninsel Teneriffa nutzten Humboldt und Bonpland zu Aktivitäten, die sie dann in der Neuen Welt vielfach wiederholen sollten: Sie bestiegen den Pico del Teide, registrierten die Vegetationszonen, übernachteten in einer Höhle unterhalb des Gipfels und untersuchten tags darauf den Krater des Vulkans. Nach der anschließenden 22-tägigen Überfahrt landeten sie am 16. Juli 1799 in Cumaná (Venezuela). Dort beobachtete Humboldt in der Nacht vom 11. auf den 12. November 1799 einen Meteorschauer der Leoniden – seine Beschreibung legte später den Grundstein für die Erkenntnis, dass solche Himmelsereignisse periodisch auftreten. Von Cumaná aus reisten Humboldt und Bonpland nach gründlicher Erforschung der Umgebung und einer Reihe von Exkursionen weiter nach Caracas.Humboldts amerikanische Forschungsreise lässt im Ganzen drei Phasen dynamisch
    vorwärts gerichteter Geländeexploration unterscheiden, die jeweils eingebettet waren in eher stationäre Phasen der Materialsichtung, -auswertung und -sicherung. Die erste große Expedition führte im Februar 180-0 von Caracas zum Fluss Apure und auf diesem in das Strombett des Orinoko, das stromaufwärts so weit wie möglich in südlicher Richtung befahren, dann aber verlassen wurde, um über den Rio Atabapo weiter südlich zum Rio Negro, dem Amazonaszufluss, vorzustoßen. Man befuhr die Flüsse auf einer Piroge, einem mit Axt und Feuer ausgehöhlten Baumstamm von ca. 13 Metern Länge und knapp einem Meter Breite. Sie
    wurde von einem Steuermann und vier indianischen Ruderern betrieben. Im Bereich des Hecks war ein niedriges Blätterdach installiert, an dessen tragfähigen Teilen Käfige mit eingefangenen Vögeln und Affen hingen. Die mitgeführten größeren Messinstrumente schränkten die Bewegungsfreiheit zusätzlich ein.Auf dem Rio Negro konnte dann die Einmündung des nordöstlich vom Orinoko direkt zufließenden Rio Cassiquiare erreicht und mit dessen Befahrung in ganzer Länge flussaufwärts der Nachweis geführt werden, dass entgegen der verbreiteten Lehrmeinung, wonach zwischen den großen Stromgebieten der Erde nirgendwo natürliche Verbindungen existierten, eine solche zwischen Orinoco und Amazonas eben doch vorhanden war und ist, der Cassiquiare nämlich. Am 20. Mai




NINETEENTH CENTURY -SLAVERY TRANSITIONS TO COLONIALISM AND THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION.
    
    French Revolution
    Manifest Destiny-US exceptionalism
    Balzac-Daumier
    La Commune
    Robert Owen-Utopia-
    Darwin-Marx
    End of slavery-Civil war-
    Abolition
    Frederick Douglass
    Decimation of Indians-Wounded Knee
    Zulu wars-Vortekkers
    US invades Texas- Mexico-The Gold Rush
    Ottoman (Muslim) Empire
    Opium Wars-China-Sun Yat Sen
    Irish Famine
    The Industrial Revolution
    Plejanov-Lenin-Stalin-Trotsky
    Carnegie-JP Morgan- Henry Ford
    Mark Twain
    Joaquin Murrieta
    Juarez-Lincoln-Maximiliano    
     Gandhi-Theodore Herzl
    The Knights of Labor
    Jose Marti
    Queen Liliuokalani
    1st Zionist Congress
    Mariategui